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12 | Anarchism | {{Short description|Political philosophy and movement}}
{{Other uses|Anarchy|Anarchism (disambiguation)|Anarchist (disambiguation)}}
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{{Use British English|date=August 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=May 2023}}
{{Anarchism sidebar}}
Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or hierarchy, primarily targeting the state and capitalism.<ref>{{Citation |lastFiala |firstAndrew |titleAnarchism |date2021 |workThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-lastZalta |editor-firstEdward N. |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/ |access-date2025-02-23 |editionWinter 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref> Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations. A historically left-wing movement, anarchism is usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement (libertarian socialism).
Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements.
Anarchists employ diverse approaches, which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and praxis.
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Etymology, terminology, and definition
{{Main|Definition of anarchism and libertarianism}}
{{See also|Glossary of anarchism}}
is an example of a writer who added to anarchist theory without using the exact term.{{Sfn|Carlson|1972|pp=22β23}}]]
The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia (αΌΞ½Ξ±ΟΟΞ―Ξ±), meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy.{{Sfnm|1a1Bates|1y2017|1p128|2a1Long|2y2013|2p217}} Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder.{{Sfnm|1a1Merriam-Webster|1y2019|1loc"Anarchism"|2a1Oxford English Dictionary|2y2005|2loc"Anarchism"|3a1Sylvan|3y2007|3p260}} Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756β1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808β1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs.{{Sfn|Joll|1964|pp27β37}}
The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist ({{Langx|fr|linkno|anarchiste}}) was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809β1865),{{Sfn|Kahn|2000}} marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France,{{Sfn|Nettlau|1996|p162}} libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism;{{Sfn|GuΓ©rin|1970|loc"The Basic Ideas of Anarchism"}} its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.{{Sfnm|1a1Ward|1y2004|1p62|2a1Goodway|2y2006|2p4|3a1Skirda|3y2002|3p183|4a1FernΓ‘ndez|4y2009|4p9}} Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism.{{Sfn|Morris|2002|p61}}
While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism,{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1992|1p641|2a1Cohn|2y2009|2p6}} its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups,{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p641}} including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cultural liberals, who are primarily concerned with civil liberties.{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p641}} Additionally, some anarchists use libertarian socialist{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1992|1p641|2a1Cohn|2y2009|2p6|3a1Levy|3a2Adams|3y2018|3p104}} to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p641}} Anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement.{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p104}}{{Refn|In Anarchism: From Theory to Practice (1970),{{Sfn|GuΓ©rin|1970|p12}} anarchist historian Daniel GuΓ©rin described it as a synonym for libertarian socialism, and wrote that anarchism "is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State."{{Sfn|Arvidsson|2017}} In his many works on anarchism, historian Noam Chomsky describes anarchism, alongside libertarian Marxism, as the libertarian wing of socialism.{{Sfn|Otero|1994|p617}}|groupnb}} Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above.{{Sfn|Osgood|1889|p1}} Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials{{Sfn|Newman|2005|p15}} and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two.{{Sfn|Morris|2015|p64}} Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism,{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p641}} and being both liberal and socialist but more so.{{Sfn|Walter|2002|p44}} Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles.{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1992|1pp564β565|2a1Jennings|2y1993|2p143|3a1Gay|3a2Gay|3y1999|3p15|4a1Morris|4y2008|4p13|5a1Johnson|5y2008|5p169|6a1Franks|6y2013|6pp393β394}}{{Refn|Herbert L. Osgood claimed that anarchism is "the extreme antithesis" of authoritarian communism and state socialism.{{Sfn|Osgood|1889|p1}} Peter Marshall states that "[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. ... Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine."{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p641}} According to Jeremy Jennings, "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas", referring to anarcho-capitalism, "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." Jennings adds that "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community."{{Sfn|Jennings|1999|p147}} Nicolas Walter wrote that "anarchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. ... In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. ... We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so."{{Sfn|Walter|2002|p44}} Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many socialist traditions, especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin.{{Sfn|Newman|2005|p15}} Brian Morris argues that it is "conceptually and historically misleading" to "create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism."{{Sfn|Morris|2015|p64}}|groupnb}}
While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently.{{Sfn|Long|2013|p217}}{{Refn|One common definition adopted by anarchists is that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing authority and hierarchical organisation, including capitalism, nationalism, the state, and all associated institutions, in the conduct of all human relations in favour of a society based on decentralisation, freedom, and voluntary association. Scholars highlight that this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on anti-authoritarianism (a posteriori conclusion), anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that),{{Sfnm|1a1McLaughlin|1y2007|1p166|2a1Jun|2y2009|2p507|3a1Franks|3y2013|3pp386β388}} and etymology (negation of rulers).{{Sfnm|1a1McLaughlin|1y2007|1pp25β29|2a1Long|2y2013|2pp217}}|groupnb}} Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.{{Sfn|McLaughlin|2007|pp25β26}}
History
{{Main|History of anarchism}}
Pre-modern era
({{Circa|334|262 BC}}), whose Republic inspired Peter Kropotkin{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=70}}]]
The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi.{{Sfnm|1a1Coutinho|1y2016|2a1Marshall|2y1993|2p54}} Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism.{{Sfn|Sylvan|2007|p257}}
Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=4, 66β73}}
In medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p86}} In Basra, religious sects preached against the state.{{Sfn|Crone|2000|pp3, 21β25}} In Europe, various religious sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies.{{Sfn|Nettlau|1996|p=8}}
Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism in Europe, particularly in France.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p108}} Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p307}}
Modern era
During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the EnragΓ©s and the {{Lang|fr|sans-culottes}} saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p4}} The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimising the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp4β5}} By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then-unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|pp10β15}} This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp4β5}}
and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.]]
Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.{{Sfnm|1a1Dodson|1y2002|1p312|2a1Thomas|2y1985|2p187|3a1Chaliand|3a2Blin|3y2007|3p116}} After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress.{{Sfnm|1a1Graham|1y2019|1pp334β336|2a1Marshall|2y1993|2p24}} Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|p12}} Bakunin predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p5}} Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs.{{Sfn|Graham|2005|p=xii}}
By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world.{{Sfn|Moya|2015|p327}} It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|p16}} In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp519β521}} Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study.{{Sfnm|1a1Dirlik|1y1991|1p133|2a1Ramnath|2y2019|2pp681β682}} In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology.{{Sfnm|1a1Levy|1y2011|1p23|2a1Laursen|2y2019|2p157|3a1Marshall|3y1993|3pp504β508}} During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, known as propaganda of the deed.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp633β636}} The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts.{{Sfn|Anderson|2004}} Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including the Immigration Act of 1903, also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act.{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1993|1pp633β636|2a1Lutz|2a2Ulmschneider|2y2019|2p46}} Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.{{Sfn|Bantman|2019|p=374}}
]]
Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina; however, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion.{{Sfn|Avrich|2006|p204}} Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too.{{Sfn|Avrich|2006|p204}} With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War, many workers and activists turned to communist parties, which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and the Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International.{{Sfn|Nomad|1966|p=88}}
In the Spanish Civil War of 1936β39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land.{{Sfn|Bolloten|1984|p1107}} The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as the May Days, as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of the Republican government, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|ppxi, 466}}
Post-WWII
support efforts for workers to form cooperatives is exemplified in this sewing cooperative.]]
By the end of World War II, the anarchist movement had been severely weakened.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pxi}} The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of MarxismβLeninism and tensions built by the Cold War.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p539}} During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|ppxi, 539}} It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|pp5|p}} Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp493β494}} The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp556β557}} Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic.{{Sfn|Williams|2015|p680}} This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.{{Sfn|Harmon|2011|p=70}}
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements.{{Sfn|Rupert|2006|p66}} Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference.{{Sfn|Rupert|2006|p66}} Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria.{{Sfn|Ramnath|2019|p=691}}
While having revolutionary aspirations, many contemporary forms of anarchism are not confrontational. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization (following the theories of dual power), based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of Food Not Bombs group of collectives, to highlight some features of how contemporary anarchist groups work: direct action, working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, Food Not Bombs provides consciousness raising about the rising rates of world hunger and suggest policies to tackle hunger, ranging from de-funding the arms industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies and patents, helping farmers, and resisting the commodification of food and housing.{{Sfn|Honeywell|2021|pp34β44}} Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well.{{Sfn|Honeywell|2021|pp1β2}} Honeywell argues that their analysis of capitalism and governments results in anarchists rejecting representative democracy and the state as a whole.{{Sfn|Honeywell|2021|pp1β3}} Schools of thought <span class"anchor" id"Branches"></span> Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution.{{Sfnm|1a1McLean|1a2McMillan|1y2003|1loc"Anarchism"|2a1Ostergaard|2y2003|2p14|2loc"Anarchism"}} The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and social ownership.{{Sfn|Harrison|Boyd|2003|p251}} In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter.{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p=9}}
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it.{{Sfn|Egoumenides|2014|p2}} A component especially of individualist anarchism,{{Sfnm|1a1Ostergaard|1y2003|1p12|2a1Gabardi|2y1986|2pp300β302}} philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy.{{Sfn|Klosko|2005|p4}} Backgrounds as diverse as Objectivism and Kantianism relevantly advance arguments in favor of philosophical anarchism, including Wolff's defense of anarchism against formal methods for legitimating it.<ref namesa>{{cite journal |lastMartin |firstThomas |dateFallβWinter 2000 |titleBook Review: In Defense of Anarchism |journalSocial Anarchism |issue27 |urlhttp://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/348 |access-date2008-06-19 }}</ref> Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy.{{Sfn|Franks|2019|p549}} Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism.{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1992|1pp564β565|2a1Jennings|2y1993|2p143|3a1Gay|3a2Gay|3y1999|3p15|4a1Morris|4y2008|4p13|5a1Johnson|5y2008|5p169|6a1Franks|6y2013|6pp=393β394}}
Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum, though many reject state authority from conservative principles, such as anarcho-capitalists.{{Sfnm|1a1Brooks|1y1994|1p[https://books.google.com/books?idgHyUj9HFYBIC&pgPP15 xi]|1ps, "Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology".}} Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics{{Sfn|GuΓ©rin|1970|p12}} such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories.{{Sfn|GuΓ©rin|1970|p35|loc"Critique of authoritarian socialism"}} As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview,{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp14β17}} many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely.{{Sfn|Sylvan|2007|p262}} One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del MΓ‘rmol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time.{{Sfn|Avrich|1996|p6}} Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists.{{Sfn|Walter|2002|p52}} Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of shared principles such as autonomy, mutual aid, anti-authoritarianism and decentralisation.{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1993|1pp1β6|2a1Angelbeck|2a2Grier|2y2012|2p551}}
Classical
is the primary proponent of mutualism and influenced many future individualist anarchist and social anarchist thinkers.{{Sfn|Wilbur|2019|pp=216β218}}]]
Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p=2}}
Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include "abolishing the state",<ref name":0">{{Cite book |titleThe Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisherOxford University Press |date2006 |isbn978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-lastWright |editor-firstEdmund |locationNew York |pages20β21}}</ref> reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people.{{Sfn|Wilbur|2019|pp213β218}} Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1Avrich|1y1996|1p6|2a1Miller|2y1991|2p11}} In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."{{Sfn|Pierson|2013|p187}} Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism{{Sfn|Morris|1993|p76}} commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin.{{Sfn|Shannon|2019|p101}} Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution{{Sfn|Avrich|1996|pp3β4}} and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.{{Sfnm|1a1Heywood|1y2017|1pp146β147|2a1Bakunin|2y=1990}}
Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production,{{Sfn|Mayne|1999|p131}} held by a federal network of voluntary associations,{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p327}} with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1993|1p327|2a1Turcato|2y2019|2pp237β238}} Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution{{Sfn|Graham|2005}} but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International.{{Sfn|Pernicone|2009|pp111β113}} It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin,{{Sfn|Turcato|2019|pp239β244}} whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|p6}} Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management.{{Sfn|Van der Walt|2019|p249}}
Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants.{{Sfn|Ryley|2019|p225}} Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p440}} as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation.{{Sfnm|1a1Imrie|1y1994|2a1Parry|2y1987|2p15}} Post-classical and contemporary
{{Main|Contemporary anarchism}}
(right) are two prominent contemporary anarchist authors, with Zerzan being a prominent voice within anarcho-primitivism and Jarach a notable advocate of post-left anarchy.]]
Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement,{{Sfn|Evren|2011|p1}} whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation.{{Sfn|Evren|2011|p2}} As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest.{{Sfn|Evren|2011|p2}} Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.{{Sfn|Williams|2007|p303}} The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=4}}
Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory.{{Sfnm|1a1Williams|1y2010|1p110|2a1Evren|2y2011|2p1|3a1Angelbeck|3a2Grier|3y2012|3p549}} Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement.{{Sfn|Franks|2013|pp385β386}} While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.{{Sfn|Franks|2013|p386}}
Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism."{{Sfn|Jun|2009|pp507β508}} Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed.{{Sfn|Jun|2009|p507}} The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.{{Sfn|Egoumenides|2014|p91}} Tactics Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp107β108}} A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|pp4β5}} Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|p125}}
Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p112}} Classical era
is a controversial subject among anarchists as shown by anarchist Leon Czolgosz assassinating William McKinley.]]
During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp112β113}} Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state.{{Sfn|Norris|2020|pp7β8}} Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s.{{Sfnm|1a1Levy|1y2011|1p13|2a1Nesser|2y2012|2p62}} Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and of targeting and cataloging by state institutions.{{Sfn|Harmon|2011|p=55}}
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial.{{Sfn|Carter|1978|p320}} Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends.{{Sfn|Fiala|2017|locsection 3.1}} Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp116β117}} Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil.{{Sfn|Carter|1978|pp320β325}}
Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p113}} Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p114}}
Revolutionary
"]]
In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression using sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=134β135}}
Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police;{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p115}} however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists, racists, and other bigots, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p117}}
Evolutionary
Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|pp4β5}} Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp109β117}} Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the "big-A Anarchism" of the classical era, the newly coined term "small-a anarchism" signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience, which they will later theorize.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=145β149}}
The concept of prefigurative politics is enacted by many contemporary anarchist groups, striving to embody the principles, organization and tactics of the changed social structure they hope to bring about. As part of this the decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp109, 119}} Anarchists have employed various methods to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5β20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp119β121}}
As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp118β119}} Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp120β121}}
Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal.{{Sfnm|1a1Kinna|1y2019|1p139|2a1Mattern|2y2019|2p596|3a1Williams|3y2018|3pp5β6}} As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action.{{Sfnm|1a1Kinna|1y2012|1p250|2a1Williams|2y2019|2p119}} Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p122}} Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.{{Sfn|Morland|2004|pp37β38}} Key issues
<!-- In the interest of restricting article length, these overview summaries are meant to be brief. Thank you. -->
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory. The compatibility of capitalism,{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1993|1p565|2a1Honderich|2y1995|2p31|3a1Meltzer|3y2000|3p50|4a1Goodway|4y2006|4p4|5a1Newman|5y2010|5p53}} nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.{{Sfn|De George|2005|pp31β32}}
The state
<!-- Important! Strive to explain how anarchists perceive authority and oppression and why they reject them. Jun (2019), p. 41. --> opposing state-waged war]]
Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1Carter|1y1971|1p14|2a1Jun|2y2019|2pp29β30}} Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society.{{Sfn|Jun|2019|pp=32β38}}
Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely.{{Sfnm|1a1Wendt|1y2020|1p2|2a1Ashwood|2y2018|2p727}} Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.{{Sfn|Ashwood|2018|p735}} Gender, sexuality, and free love
{{Main|Anarchism and issues related to love and sex}}
As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|p=603}}
protests, symbols, and flags]]
Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing.{{Sfn|Lucy|2020|p162}} Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age-of-consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men.{{Sfn|Lucy|2020|p178}} A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1Nicholas|1y2019|1p611|2a1Jeppesen|2a2Nazar|2y2012|2pp175β176}} Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure.{{Sfn|Jeppesen|Nazar|2012|pp175β176}} Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together.{{Sfn|Jeppesen|Nazar|2012|p177}} Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love.{{Sfn|Jeppesen|Nazar|2012|pp175β177}} Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (using a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=166β167}}
During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|pp609β611}} With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|pp610β611}} Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|pp616β617}} Education
{{Main|Anarchism and education}}
{|class"wikitable" style"border: none; float: right;"
|+ Anarchist vs. statist perspectives on education<br/>{{Small|Ruth Kinna (2019){{Sfn|Kinna|2019|p=97}}}}
|-
!scope="col"|
!scope="col"|Anarchist education
!scope="col"|State education
|-
|Concept || Education as self-mastery || Education as service
|-
|Management || Community based || State run
|-
|Methods || Practice-based learning || Vocational training
|-
|Aims || Being a critical member of society || Being a productive member of society
|}
The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid.{{Sfnm|1a1Kinna|1y2019|1pp83β85|2a2Suissa|2y2019|2pp514β515, 520}} Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max Stirner ("The False Principle of Our Education") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.{{Sfnm|1a1Suissa|1y2019|1pp514, 521|2a1Kinna|2y2019|2pp83β86|3a1Marshall|3y1993|3p=222}}
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp511β512}} Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process while giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp511β514}} Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free."{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp517β518}} In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp518β519}}
Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.{{Sfnm|1a1Avrich|1y1980|1pp3β33|2a1Suissa|2y2019|2pp519β522}}
Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp89β96}} Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.{{Sfn|Ward|1973|pp39β48}}
While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp523β526}} The arts
{{Main|Anarchism and the arts}}
is a notable example of blending anarchism and the arts.{{Sfn|Antliff|1998|p=99}}]]
The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|p592}} In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement.{{Sfn|Gifford|2019|p577}} In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk.{{Sfnm|1a1Marshall|1y1993|1pp493β494|2a1Dunn|2y2012|3a1Evren|3a2Kinna|3a3Rouselle|3y2013|p138}} Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|pp=592β593}}
Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|p593}} In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris RobΓ© claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism."{{Sfn|RobΓ©|2017|p44}} Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.{{Sfn|Miller|Dirlik|Rosemont|Augustyn|2019|p=1}}
Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|pp593β596}} The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism.{{Sfn|Antliff|1998|p78}} In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.{{Sfn|Antliff|1998|p99}} Criticism The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government."{{Sfn|Krimerman|Perry|1966|p494}} Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.{{Sfn|Ward|2004|p=78}}
Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy to protect the people's interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a "night-watchman state", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war. Anarcho-primitivists in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.<ref>{{Citation |lastFiala |firstAndrew |titleAnarchism |date2021 |editor-lastZalta |editor-firstEdward N. |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/anarchism |access-date2023-06-17 |editionWinter 2021 |publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>
Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action while endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.{{Sfn|Fiala|2017|loc="4. Objections and Replies"}}
Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations.{{Sfn|Klosko|1999|p536}} Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.{{Sfnm|1a1Klosko|1y1999|1p536|2a1KristjΓ‘nsson|2y2000|2p896}} In The Problem of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism,{{Sfn|Dagger|2018|p35}} claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."{{Sfn|Rogers|2020|p=}}
One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority.{{Sfn|Ferguson|1886}} Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success.{{Sfn|Gans|1992|p37}} Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction.{{Sfn|Gans|1992|p38}} Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment.{{Sfn|Gans|1992|pp34, 38}} Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively.{{Sfn|Brinn|2020|p206}} Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.{{Sfn|Lucy|2020|p=162}}
Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian.{{Sfn|Tucker|1978}} Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas.{{Sfn|Dodds|2011}} The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.{{Sfn|BaΓ‘r|Falina|Janowski|KopeΔek|2016|p=488}}
Anarcho-communist Albert Meltzer acknowledged "Marx's quite sensible analysis" that anarchism was the movement of formerly self-employed, independent-minded, individualistic, intrepid, advanced craftsmen and artisans who had been ruined by capitalistic industrialization or even war and then driven to factories; even so, they refused to subject themselves to factory discipline, party leadership, and State control, were prone to violence when frustrated, and advocated seizing factories only to break down mass production and return to craftsmanship.<ref>{{cite book|lastMeltzer|first Albert|author-linkAlbert Meltzer|year 1996|orig-year1981|title Anarchism: Arguments For and Against|urlhttps://files.libcom.org/files/Meltzer,%20Albert%20-%20Anarchism,%20Arguments%20for%20and%20Against.PDF|edition second revised|pages7-8, 55-56}}</ref> See also
{{Portal|Anarchism|Libertarianism}}
* Outline of anarchism
* List of anarchist movements by region
* List of anarchist political ideologies
* List of books about anarchism
* List of films dealing with anarchism
Anarchist communities
* List of stateless societies
* List of intentional communities
* List of self-managed social centers
References
Explanatory notes
{{Reflist|groupnb}} Citations {{Reflist|25em}} General and cited sources Primary sources {{Refbegin|30em|indentyes}}
* {{Cite book |lastBakunin |firstMikhail |author-linkMikhail Bakunin |titleStatism and Anarchy |title-linkStatism and Anarchy |publisherCambridge University Press |date1990 |isbn978-0-5213-6182-8 |editor-lastShatz |editor-firstMarshall |seriesCambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought |locationCambridge, England |translator-lastShatz |translator-firstMarshall |doi10.1017/CBO9781139168083 |lccn89077393 |oclc20826465 |orig-date1873}}
{{Refend}}
Secondary sources
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Angelbeck |first1Bill |last2Grier |first2Colin |date2012 |titleAnarchism and the Archaeology of Anarchic Societies: Resistance to Centralization in the Coast Salish Region of the Pacific Northwest Coast |urlhttps://arcabc.ca/islandora/object/dc%3A312/datastream/PDF/view |url-statuslive |journalCurrent Anthropology |volume53 |issue5 |pages547β587 |doi10.1086/667621 |s2cid142786065 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180721142558/https://arcabc.ca/islandora/object/dc%3A312/datastream/PDF/view |archive-date21 July 2018 |access-date24 June 2021 |s2cid-accessfree |issn = 0011-3204 }}
* {{Cite journal |lastAntliff |firstMark |date1998 |titleCubism, Futurism, Anarchism: The 'Aestheticism' of the "Action d'art" Group, 1906β1920 |journalOxford Art Journal |volume21 |issue2 |pages101β120 |doi10.1093/oxartj/21.2.99 |jstor1360616}}
* {{Cite journal |lastAnderson |firstBenedict |author-linkBenedict Anderson |date2004 |titleIn the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel |urlhttp://newleftreview.org/II/28/benedict-anderson-in-the-world-shadow-of-bismarck-and-nobel |journalNew Left Review |volume2 |issue28 |pages85β129 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151219130121/http://newleftreview.org/II/28/benedict-anderson-in-the-world-shadow-of-bismarck-and-nobel |archive-date19 December 2015 |access-date=7 January 2016}}
* {{Cite book |lastArvidsson |firstStefan |author-linkStefan Arvidsson |titleThe Style and Mythology of Socialism: Socialist Idealism, 1871β1914 |publisherRoutledge |date2017 |isbn978-0-3673-4880-9 |edition1st |location=London}}
* {{Cite journal |lastAshwood |firstLoka |date2018 |titleRural Conservatism or Anarchism? The Pro-state, Stateless, and Anti-state Positions |journalRural Sociology |volume83 |issue4 |pages717β748 |doi10.1111/ruso.12226 |s2cid158802675}}
* {{Cite book |lastAvrich |firstPaul |author-linkPaul Avrich |titleAnarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America |publisherPrinceton University Press |date1996 |isbn=978-0-6910-4494-1}}
* {{Cite book |lastAvrich |firstPaul |author-linkPaul Avrich |titleThe Russian Anarchists |title-linkThe Russian Anarchists |publisherAK Press |date2006 |isbn978-1-9048-5948-2 |locationStirling |author-mask2}}
* {{Cite book |lastAvrich |firstPaul |author-linkPaul Avrich |titleThe Modern School Movement: Anarchism and Education in the United States |publisherPrinceton University Press |date1980 |isbn978-1-4008-5318-2 |pages3β33 |oclc489692159 |author-mask2}}
* {{Cite book |last1BaΓ‘r |first1Monika |titleA History of Modern Political Thought in East Central Europe: Negotiating Modernity in the 'Long Nineteenth Century' |last2Falina |first2Maria |last3Janowski |first3Maciej |last4KopeΔek |first4Michal |last5TrencsΓ©nyi |first5BalΓ‘zs TrencsΓ©nyi |publisherOxford University Press |date2016 |isbn978-0-1910-5695-6 |volumeI |locationOxford}}
* {{Cite book |lastBantman |firstConstance |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages371β388 |chapterThe Era of Propaganda by the Deed |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm7BhDwAAQBAJ&pgPA372}}
* {{Cite book |lastBates |firstDavid |titlePolitical Ideologies |publisherOxford University Press |date2017 |isbn978-0-1987-2785-9 |editor-lastWetherly |editor-firstPaul |chapterAnarchism |access-date2019-02-28 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduXfJDgAAQBAJ&pgPA128 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218111304/https://books.google.com/books?iduXfJDgAAQBAJ&pgPA128 |archive-date2021-02-18 |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book |lastBolloten |firstBurnett |author-linkBurnett Bolloten |titleThe Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution |publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press |date1984 |isbn=978-0-8078-1906-7}}
* {{Cite journal |lastBrinn |firstGearΓ³id |date2020 |titleSmashing the State Gently: Radical Realism and Realist Anarchism |journalEuropean Journal of Political Theory |volume19 |issue2 |pages206β227 |doi10.1177/1474885119865975 |s2cid202278143}}
* {{Cite book |lastBrooks |firstFrank H. |titleThe Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881β1908) |publisherTransaction Publishers |date1994 |isbn978-1-5600-0132-4}}
* {{Cite book |lastCarlson |firstAndrew R. |titleAnarchism in Germany; Vol. 1: The Early Movement |title-linkAnarchism in Germany (book) |publisherScarecrow Press |date1972 |isbn978-0-8108-0484-5 |locationMetuchen, New Jersey}}
* {{Cite book |lastCarter |firstApril |author-linkApril Carter |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3mlWPgAACAAJ |titleThe Political Theory of Anarchism |publisherRoutledge |date1971 |isbn978-0-4155-5593-7 |access-date7 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115214125/https://books.google.com/books?id3mlWPgAACAAJ |archive-date15 January 2021 |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite journal |lastCarter |firstApril |date1978 |titleAnarchism and violence |journalNomos |publisherAmerican Society for Political and Legal Philosophy |volume19 |pages320β340 |jstor=24219053}}
* {{Cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofterrori00grar |titleThe History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al-Quaeda |publisherUniversity of California Press |date2007 |isbn978-0-5202-4709-3 |editor-lastChaliand |editor-firstGerard |locationBerkeley; Los Angeles; London |oclc634891265 |editor-last2Blin |editor-first2Arnaud |url-accessregistration}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |date2009 |titleAnarchism |encyclopediaThe International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |locationOxford |lastCohn |firstJesse |editor-lastNess |editor-firstImmanuel |editor-linkImmanuel Ness |pages1β11 |doi10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0039 |isbn=978-1-4051-9807-3}}
* {{Cite journal |lastCrone |firstPatricia |author-linkPatricia Crone |date2000 |titleNinth-Century Muslim Anarchists |urlhttps://www.hs.ias.edu/files/Crone_Articles/Crone_Ninth_Century_Muslim_Anarchists.pdf |url-statusdead |journalPast & Present |issue167 |pages3β28 |doi10.1093/past/167.1.3 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200828210845/https://www.hs.ias.edu/files/Crone_Articles/Crone_Ninth_Century_Muslim_Anarchists.pdf |archive-date28 August 2020 |access-date3 January 2022}}
* {{Cite book |lastDagger |firstTristan J. |titlePlaying Fair: Political Obligation and the Problems of Punishment |publisherOxford University Press |date2018 |isbn978-0-1993-8883-7 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |lastDirlik |firstArif |titleAnarchism in the Chinese Revolution |publisherUniversity of California Press |date1991 |isbn978-0-5200-7297-8 |location=Berkeley}}
* {{Cite magazine |lastDodds |firstJonathan |dateOctober 2011 |titleAnarchism: A Marxist Criticism |urlhttp://socialistreview.org.uk/362/anarchism-marxist-criticism |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218111328/http://socialistreview.org.uk/362/anarchism-marxist-criticism |archive-date2021-02-18 |access-date2020-07-31 |magazineSocialist Review}}
* {{Cite book |lastDodson |firstEdward |titleThe Discovery of First Principles |publisherAuthorhouse |date2002 |isbn978-0-5952-4912-1 |volume=2}}
* {{Cite journal |lastDunn |firstKevin |dateAugust 2012 |titleAnarcho-Punk and Resistance in Everyday Life |journalPunk & Post-Punk |publisherIntellect |volume1 |issue2 |pages201β218 |doi10.1386/punk.1.2.201_1}}
* {{Cite book |lastEgoumenides |firstMagda |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4qEMBAAAQBAJ |titlePhilosophical Anarchism and Political Obligation |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |date2014 |isbn978-1-4411-2445-6 |locationNew York |access-date21 February 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218111334/https://books.google.com/books?id4qEMBAAAQBAJ |archive-date18 February 2021 |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book |lastEvren |firstSΓΌreyyya |author-linkSΓΌreyyya Evren |titlePost-Anarchism: A Reader |publisherPluto Press |date2011 |isbn978-0-7453-3086-0 |editor-lastRousselle |editor-firstDuane |editor-linkDuane Rousselle |pages1β19 |chapterHow New Anarchism Changed the World (of Opposition) after Seattle and Gave Birth to Post-Anarchism |editor-last2Evren |editor-first2SΓΌreyyya |editor-link2=SΓΌreyyya Evren}}
* {{Cite book |last1Evren |first1SΓΌreyyya |author-linkSΓΌreyyya Evren |titleBlasting the Canon |last2Kinna |first2Ruth |author-link2Ruth Kinna |last3Rouselle |first3Duane |author-link3Duane Rousselle |publisherPunctum Books |date2013 |isbn978-0-6158-3862-5 |locationSanta Barbara, California}}
* {{Cite journal |lastFerguson |firstFrancis L. |dateAugust 1886 |titleThe Mistakes of Anarchism |journalThe North American Review |publisherUniversity of Northern Iowa |volume143 |issue357 |pages204β206 |issn0029-2397 |jstor=25101094}}
* {{Cite book |lastFernΓ‘ndez |firstFrank |titleCuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement |publisherSharp Press |date2009 |orig-date2001}}
* {{Cite book |lastFranks |firstBenjamin |author-linkBenjamin Franks (philosopher) |titleThe Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies |dateAugust 2013 |publisherOxford University Press |editor-lastFreeden |editor-firstMichael |pages385β404 |chapterAnarchism |doi10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001 |editor-last2Stears |editor-first2=Marc}}
* {{Cite book |lastFranks |firstBenjamin |author-linkBenjamin Franks (philosopher) |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages549β570 |chapterAnarchism and Ethics |author-mask2 |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite journal |lastGabardi |firstWayne |date1986 |titleAnarchism. By David Miller. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1984. pp. 216 [book review]) |journalAmerican Political Science Review |volume80 |issue1 |pages300β302 |doi10.2307/1957102 |jstor446800 |s2cid=151950709}}
* {{Cite book |lastGans |firstChaim |titlePhilosophical Anarchism and Political Disobedience |publisherCambridge University Press |date1992 |isbn978-0-5214-1450-0 |editionreprint |locationCambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last1Gay |first1Kathlyn |titleEncyclopedia of Political Anarchy |last2Gay |first2Martin |publisherABC-CLIO |date1999 |isbn978-0-8743-6982-3}}
* {{Cite book |lastGifford |firstJames |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |chapterLiterature and Anarchism |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite book |lastGoodway |firstDavid |author-linkDavid Goodway |titleAnarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow |publisherLiverpool Press |date2006 |isbn=978-1-8463-1025-6}}
* {{Cite book |lastGraham |firstRobert |author-linkRobert Graham (historian) |titleAnarchism: a Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas: from Anarchy to Anarchism |publisherBlack Rose Books |date2005 |isbn978-1-5516-4250-5 |locationMontrΓ©al}}
* {{Cite book |lastGraham |firstRobert |author-linkRobert Graham (historian) |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages325β342 |chapterAnarchism and the First International |author-mask2 |access-date17 May 2020 |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book |lastGuΓ©rin |firstDaniel |author-linkDaniel GuΓ©rin |urlhttp://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice |titleAnarchism: From Theory to Practice |publisherMonthly Review Press |date1970 |isbn978-0-8534-5128-0 |access-date16 February 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200714125723/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice |archive-date14 July 2020 |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book |last1Harrison |first1Kevin |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5qrJCgAAQBAJ |titleUnderstanding Political Ideas and Movements |last2Boyd |first2Tony |publisherManchester University Press |date2003 |isbn978-0-7190-6151-6 |access-date7 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308074910/https://books.google.com/books?id5qrJCgAAQBAJ |archive-date8 March 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |lastHarmon |firstChristopher C. |date2011 |titleHow Terrorist Groups End: Studies of the Twentieth Century |journalConnections |volume10 |issue2 |pages51β104 |jstor=26310649}}
* {{Cite book |lastHeywood |firstAndrew |author-linkAndrew Heywood |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSy8hDgAAQBAJ&pgPA146 |titlePolitical Ideologies: An Introduction |publisherMacmillan International Higher Education |date2017 |isbn978-1-1376-0604-4 |edition6th |access-date13 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218111410/https://books.google.com/books?idSy8hDgAAQBAJ&pgPA146 |archive-date18 February 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastHonderich |firstTed |urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond |titleThe Oxford Companion to Philosophy |publisherOxford University Press |date1995 |isbn978-0-1986-6132-0 |url-accessregistration}}
* {{Cite book |lastHoneywell |firstC. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqzKOzQEACAAJ |titleAnarchism |publisherWiley |date2021 |isbn978-1-5095-2390-0 |seriesKey Concepts in Political Theory |access-date2022-08-13}}
* {{Cite news |lastImrie |firstDoug |date1994 |titleThe Illegalists |urlhttp://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150908072801/http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm |archive-date2015-09-08 |access-date2010-12-09 |workAnarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |lastJennings |firstJeremy |author-linkJeremy Jennings |titleContemporary Political Ideologies |publisherPinter |date1993 |isbn978-0-8618-7096-7 |editor-lastEatwell |editor-firstRoger |editor-linkRoger Eatwell |locationLondon |pages127β146 |chapterAnarchism |editor-last2Wright |editor-first2=Anthony}}
* {{Cite book |lastJennings |firstJeremy |author-linkJeremy Jennings |titleContemporary Political Ideologies |publisherA & C Black |date1999 |isbn978-0-8264-5173-6 |editor-lastEatwell |editor-firstRoger |editor-linkRoger Eatwell |editionreprinted, 2nd |locationLondon |chapterAnarchism |editor-last2Wright |editor-first2=Anthony}}
* {{Cite book |last1Jeppesen |first1Sandra |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddNuoAwAAQBAJ |titleThe Bloomsbury Companion to Anarchism |last2Nazar |first2Holly |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |date2012 |isbn978-1-4411-4270-2 |editor-lastKinna |editor-firstRuth |editor-linkRuth Kinna |chapterGenders and Sexualities in Anarchist Movements |access-date26 January 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115214158/https://books.google.com/books?iddNuoAwAAQBAJ |archive-date15 January 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastJohnson |firstCharles |titleAnarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country? |publisherAshgate Publishing |date2008 |isbn978-0-7546-6066-8 |editor-lastLong |editor-firstRoderick T. |pages155β188 |chapterLiberty, Equality, Solidarity Toward a Dialectical Anarchism |editor-last2Machan |editor-first2Tibor R. |editor-link2=Tibor Machan}}
* {{Cite book |lastJoll |firstJames |author-linkJames Joll |titleThe Anarchists |publisherHarvard University Press |date1964 |isbn=978-0-6740-3642-0}}
* {{Cite journal |lastJun |firstNathan |dateSeptember 2009 |titleAnarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary |urlhttps://philarchive.org/rec/JUNAPA-2 |journalWorkingUSA |languageen |volume12 |issue3 |pages505β519 |doi10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x |issn1089-7011}}<!-- to revisit, p. 508+ -->
* {{Cite book |lastJun |firstNathan |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages27β47 |chapterThe State |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite book |lastKinna |firstRuth |author-linkRuth Kinna |titleThe Bloomsbury Companion to Anarchism |publisherBloomsbury Academic |date2012 |isbn=978-1-6289-2430-5}}
* {{Cite book |lastKinna |firstRuth |author-linkRuth Kinna |titleThe Government of No One: The Theory and Practice of Anarchism |publisherPenguin Random House |date2019 |isbn=978-0-2413-9655-1}}
* {{Cite journal |lastKlosko |firstGeorge |date1999 |titleMore than Obligation β William A. Edmundson: Three Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority |journalThe Review of Politics |volume61 |issue3 |pages536β538 |doi10.1017/S0034670500028989 |issn1748-6858 |s2cid=144417469}}
* {{Cite book |lastKlosko |firstGeorge |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idToHmfIj8d_gC |titlePolitical Obligations |publisherOxford University Press |date2005 |isbn978-0-1995-5104-0 |access-date7 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201124033632/https://books.google.com/books?idToHmfIj8d_gC |archive-date24 November 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |urlhttp://archive.org/details/patternsofanarch00krim |titlePatterns of Anarchy: A Collection of Writings on the Anarchist Tradition |date1966 |publisherAnchor Books |editor-lastKrimerman |editor-firstLeonard I. |locationGarden City, New York |languageen |editor-last2Perry |editor-first2Lewis}}
* {{Cite journal |lastKristjΓ‘nsson |firstKristjΓ‘n |date2000 |titleThree Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority by William A. Edmundson |journalMind |volume109 |issue436 |pages896β900 |jstor=2660038}}
* {{Cite book |lastLaursen |firstOle Birk |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages149β168 |chapterAnti-Imperialism |access-date17 May 2020 |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite journal |lastLevy |firstCarl |author-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |date8 May 2011 |titleSocial Histories of Anarchism |journalJournal for the Study of Radicalism |volume4 |issue2 |pages1β44 |doi10.1353/jsr.2010.0003 |issn1930-1197 |s2cid144317650}}
* {{Cite book |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |date2018 |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |isbn978-3-3197-5619-6 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite book |lastLong |firstRoderick T. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz7MzEHaJgKAC |titleThe Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy |publisherRoutledge |date2013 |isbn978-0-4158-7456-4 |editor-lastGaud |editor-firstGerald F. |access-date2019-02-28 |editor-last2D'Agostino |editor-first2Fred |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200809085833/https://books.google.com/books?idz7MzEHaJgKAC |archive-date2020-08-09 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastLucy |firstNicholas |titleThe SAGE Handbook of Global Sexualities |publisherSAGE Publishing |date2020 |isbn978-1-5297-2194-2 |pages160β183 |chapterAnarchism and Sexuality |access-date21 February 2022 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-t7KDwAAQBAJ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115214344/https://books.google.com/books?id-t7KDwAAQBAJ |archive-date15 January 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Lutz |first1James M. |last2Ulmschneider |first2Georgia Wralstad |date2019 |titleCivil Liberties, National Security and U.S. Courts in Times of Terrorism |journalPerspectives on Terrorism |volume13 |issue6 |pages43β57 |jstor=26853740}}
* {{Cite book |lastMarshall |firstPeter |author-linkPeter Marshall (author, born 1946) |titleDemanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism |publisherHarperCollins |date1992 |isbn978-0-0021-7855-6 |locationLondon}}
* {{Cite book |lastMarshall |firstPeter |author-linkPeter Marshall (author, born 1946) |titleDemanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism |publisherPM Press |date1993 |isbn978-1-6048-6064-1 |locationOakland, California |author-mask=2}}
* {{Cite book |lastMattern |firstMark |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages589β602 |chapterAnarchism and Art |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite book |lastMayne |firstAlan James |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6MkTz6Rq7wUC&qCommunist+anarchism+believes+in+collective+ownership&pgPA131 |titleFrom Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms |publisherGreenwood Publishing Group |date1999 |isbn978-0-2759-6151-0 |access-date20 September 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418013303/https://books.google.com/books?id6MkTz6Rq7wUC&qCommunist+anarchism+believes+in+collective+ownership&pgPA131 |archive-date18 April 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastMcLaughlin |firstPaul |titleAnarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism |publisherAshgate |date2007 |isbn978-0-7546-6196-2 |location=Aldershot}}
* {{Cite book |lastMorland |firstDave |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idetb2UFzCBv4C |titleChanging Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age |publisherManchester University Press |date2004 |isbn978-0-7190-6694-8 |editor-lastPurkis |editor-firstJonathan |pages23β38 |chapterAnti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism |access-date24 January 2020 |editor-last2Bowen |editor-first2James |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218111517/https://books.google.com/books?idetb2UFzCBv4C |archive-date18 February 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastMeltzer |firstAlbert |author-linkAlbert Meltzer |urlhttps://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe |titleAnarchism: Arguments For and Against |publisherAK Press |date2000 |isbn978-1-8731-7657-3 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |lastMorris |firstBrian |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGJXy5eCpPawC |titleBakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom |publisherBlack Rose Books |date1993 |isbn978-1-8954-3166-7 |access-date8 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225175003/https://books.google.com/books?idGJXy5eCpPawC |archive-date25 February 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastMorris |firstBrian |titleAnthropology, Ecology, and Anarchism: A Brian Morris Reader |publisherPM Press |othersMarshall, Peter |date2015 |isbn978-1-6048-6093-1 |editionillustrated |locationOakland |author-mask2}}
* {{Cite book |lastMorris |firstChristopher W. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduuyJ9Bw8w7QC |titleAn Essay on the Modern State |publisherCambridge University Press |date2002 |isbn978-0-5215-2407-0 |access-date15 September 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115214335/https://books.google.com/books?iduuyJ9Bw8w7QC |archive-date15 January 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastMoya |firstJose C. |titleIn Defiance of Boundaries: Anarchism in Latin American History |publisherUniversity Press of Florida |othersKirwin R. Shaffer |date2015 |isbn978-0-8130-5138-3 |editor-lastLaforcade |editor-firstGeoffroy de |chapterTransference, culture, and critique The Circulation of Anarchist Ideas and Practices |access-date6 March 2019 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idikt6AQAACAAJ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200809085903/https://books.google.com/books?idikt6AQAACAAJ |archive-date9 August 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |lastNesser |firstPetter |date2012 |titleResearch Note: Single Actor Terrorism: Scope, Characteristics and Explanations |journalPerspectives on Terrorism |volume6 |issue6 |pages61β73 |jstor=26296894}}
* {{Cite book |lastNettlau |firstMax |author-linkMax Nettlau |titleA Short History of Anarchism |publisherFreedom Press |date1996 |isbn=978-0-9003-8489-9}}
* {{Cite book |lastNewman |firstMichael |titleSocialism: A Very Short Introduction |publisherOxford University Press |date2005 |isbn978-0-1928-0431-0 |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |lastNewman |firstSaul |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSiqBiViUsOkC&pgPA43 |titleThe Politics of Postanarchism |publisherEdinburgh University Press |date2010 |isbn978-0-7486-3495-8 |access-date29 October 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200103005542/https://books.google.com/books?idSiqBiViUsOkC&pgPA43 |archive-date3 January 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastNicholas |firstLucy |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |chapterGender and Sexuality |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite journal |lastNorris |firstJesse J. |date2020 |titleIdiosyncratic Terrorism: Disaggregating an Undertheorized Concept |journalPerspectives on Terrorism |volume14 |issue3 |issn2334-3745 |jstor=26918296s}}
* {{Cite book |lastNomad |firstMax |titleRevolutionary Internationals 1864β1943 |publisherStanford University Press |date1966 |isbn978-0-8047-0293-5 |editor-lastDrachkovitch |editor-firstMilorad M. |page88 |chapterThe Anarchist Tradition}}
* {{Cite journal |lastOsgood |firstHerbert L. |dateMarch 1889 |titleScientific Anarchism |journalPolitical Science Quarterly |publisherThe Academy of Political Science |volume4 |issue1 |pages1β36 |doi10.2307/2139424 |jstor=2139424}}
* {{Cite book |lastOtero |firstCarlos PeregrΓn |titleNoam Chomsky: Critical Assessments |publisherRoutledge |date1994 |isbn978-0-4150-1005-4 |volume2β3 |locationLondon}}
* {{Cite book |lastParry |firstRichard |urlhttps://archive.org/details/bonnotgang0000parr |titleThe Bonnot Gang |publisherRebel Press |date1987 |isbn978-0-9460-6104-4 |url-accessregistration}}
* {{Cite book |lastPernicone |firstNunzio |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3ttgjwEACAAJ |titleItalian Anarchism, 1864β1892 |publisherPrinceton University Press |date2009 |isbn978-0-6916-3268-1 |access-date8 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200819161516/https://books.google.com/books?id3ttgjwEACAAJ |archive-date19 August 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastPierson |firstChristopher |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7jvKDAAAQBAJ&pgPA187 |titleJust Property: Enlightenment, Revolution, and History |publisherOxford University Press |date2013 |isbn978-0-1996-7329-2 |access-date8 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210316125550/https://books.google.com/books?id7jvKDAAAQBAJ&pgPA187 |archive-date16 March 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastRamnath |firstMaia |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |chapterNon-Western Anarchisms and Postcolonialism |access-date17 May 2020 |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastRobΓ© |firstChris |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/336710855 |titleBreaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas |publisherPM Press |date2017 |isbn978-1-6296-3233-9 |access-date21 February 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220221022844/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336710855_Breaking_the_Spell_A_History_of_Anarchist_Filmmakers_Videotape_Guerrillas_and_Digital_Ninjas |archive-date21 February 2022 |url-statuslive |viaResearchGate}}
* {{Cite book |lastRogers |firstTristan J. |titleThe Authority of Virtue: Institutions and Character in the Good Society |publisherRoutledge |date2020 |isbn978-1-0002-2264-7 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |lastRupert |firstMark |urlhttps://archive.org/details/globalizationint00rupe |titleGlobalization and International Political Economy |publisherRowman & Littlefield Publishers |date2006 |isbn978-0-7425-2943-4 |locationLanham}}
* {{Cite book |lastRyley |firstPeter |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages225β236 |chapterIndividualism |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite book |lastShannon |firstDeric |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages91β106 |chapterAnti-Capitalism and Libertarian Political Economy |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite book |lastSkirda |firstAlexandre |titleFacing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization From Proudhon to May 1968 |publisherAK Press |date2002 |isbn978-1-9025-9319-7}}
* {{Cite book |lastSylvan |firstRichard |author-linkRichard Sylvan |titleA Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |date2007 |publisherBlackwell Publishing |isbn978-1-4051-3653-2 |editor-lastGoodin |editor-firstRobert E. |editor-linkRobert E. Goodin |edition2nd |seriesBlackwell Companions to Philosophy |volume5 |chapterAnarchism |editor-last2Pettit |editor-first2Philip |editor-link2Philip Pettit |editor-last3Pogge |editor-first3Thomas |editor-link3Thomas Pogge}}
* {{Cite book |lastSuissa |firstJudith |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |chapterAnarchist Education |access-date17 May 2020 |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?idSRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastThomas |firstPaul |author-linkPaul Thomas (Marx scholar) |titleKarl Marx and the Anarchists |publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul |date1985 |isbn978-0-7102-0685-5 |locationLondon}}
* {{Cite book |titleThe Marx-Engels Reader |publisherW. W. Norton & Company |date1978 |isbn0-3930-5684-8 |editor-lastTucker |editor-firstRobert C. |edition2nd |locationNew York |oclc=3415145}}
* {{Cite book |lastTurcato |firstDavide |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |chapterAnarchist Communism |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite book |lastVan der Walt |firstLucien |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |pages249β264 |chapterSyndicalism |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite journal |lastWard |firstColin |author-linkColin Ward |date1973 |titleThe Role of the State |journalEducation Without Schools |pages=39β48}}
* {{Cite book |lastWard |firstColin |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnkgSDAAAQBAJ |titleAnarchism: A Very Short Introduction |publisherOxford University Press |date2004 |isbn978-0-1928-0477-8 |locationOxford |author-mask2 |access-date12 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210304153805/https://books.google.com/books?idnkgSDAAAQBAJ |archive-date4 March 2021 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastWalter |firstNicholas |titleAbout Anarchism |publisherFreedom Press |date2002 |isbn978-0-9003-8490-5 |location=London}}
* {{Cite journal |lastWendt |firstFabian |date2020 |titleAgainst Philosophical Anarchism |journalLaw and Philosophy |volume39 |issue5 |pages527β544 |doi10.1007/s10982-020-09377-4 |s2cid213742949}}
* {{Cite book |lastWilbur |firstShawn |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |chapterMutualism |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite journal |lastWilliams |firstDana M. |date2015 |titleBlack Panther Radical Factionalization and the Development of Black Anarchism |journalJournal of Black Studies |locationThousand Oaks |publisherSAGE Publishing |volume46 |issue7 |pages678β703 |doi10.1177/0021934715593053 |jstor24572914 |s2cid=145663405}}
* {{Cite journal |lastWilliams |firstDana M. |author-mask2 |date2018 |titleContemporary Anarchist and Anarchistic Movements |journalSociology Compass |publisherWiley |volume12 |issue6 |pagese12582 |doi10.1111/soc4.12582 |issn1751-9020}}
* {{Cite book |lastWilliams |firstDana M. |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherSpringer Publishing |date2019 |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstCarl |editor-linkCarl Levy (political scientist) |chapterTactics: Conceptions of Social Change, Revolution, and Anarchist Organisation |author-mask2 |editor-last2Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}}
* {{Cite journal |lastWilliams |firstLeonard |dateSeptember 2007 |titleAnarchism Revived |journalNew Political Science |languageen |volume29 |issue3 |pages297β312 |doi10.1080/07393140701510160 |issn0739-3148 |s2cid220354272}}
* {{Cite journal |lastWilliams |firstLeonard |author-mask2 |date2010 |titleHakim Bey and Ontological Anarchism |journalJournal for the Study of Radicalism |locationEast Lansing |publisherMichigan State University Press |volume4 |issue2 |pages109β137 |doi10.1353/jsr.2010.0009 |jstor41887660 |s2cid143304524}}
{{Refend}}
Tertiary sources
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite web |lastCoutinho |firstSteve |date3 March 2016 |titleZhuangzi |urlhttp://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303175106/http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi |archive-date2016-03-03 |access-date2019-03-05 |publisherInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |lastDe George |firstRichard T. |titleThe Oxford Companion to Philosophy |publisherOxford University Press |date2005 |isbn978-0-1992-6479-7 |editor-lastHonderich |editor-firstTed |editor-link=Ted Honderich}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |date2017 |titleAnarchism |encyclopediaStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism |access-date12 March 2019 |lastFiala |firstAndrew |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200828210847/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism |archive-date28 August 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |date2019 |titleAnarchism In The Arts |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism/Anarchism-in-the-arts#info-article-contributors |access-date31 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201128002441/https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism/Anarchism-in-the-arts#info-article-contributors |archive-date28 November 2020 |last2Dirlik |first2Arif |last3Rosemont |first3Franklin |last4Augustyn |first4Adam |last5Duignan |first5Brian |last6Lotha |first6Gloria |last1Miller |first1Martin A. |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |date2008 |titleAnarcho-capitalism |encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisherSAGE; Cato Institute |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyxNgXs3TkJYC&pgPT51 |access-date2 September 2020 |editor-lastHamowy |editor-firstRonald |editor-linkRonald Hamowy |pages13β14 |doi10.4135/9781412965811.n8 |isbn978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc191924853 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218111721/https://books.google.com/books?idyxNgXs3TkJYC&pgPT51 |archive-date18 February 2021 |last1Morris |first1Andrew |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book |last1McLean |first1Iain |urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxfordconcisedic00iain |titleThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics |last2McMillan |first2Alistair |publisherOxford University Press |date2003 |isbn978-0-1928-0276-7 |url-accessregistration}}
* {{Cite web |date2019 |titleDefinition of Anarchism |urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchism |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210218111728/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchism |archive-date2021-02-18 |access-date2019-02-28 |websiteMerriam-Webster |languageen |ref{{Sfnref|Merriam-Webster|2019}}}}
* {{Cite book |lastMiller |firstDavid |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNIZfQTd3nSMC |titleThe Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought |publisherWiley |date1991 |isbn978-0-6311-7944-3 |access-date7 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200818145221/https://books.google.com/books?idNIZfQTd3nSMC |archive-date18 August 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |date2003 |titleAnarchism |encyclopediaThe Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought |publisherBlackwell Publishing |locationMalden, Massachusetts |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJJmdpqJwkwwC&pgPA12 |access-date15 August 2020 |lastOstergaard |firstGeoffrey |author-linkGeoffrey Ostergaard |editor-lastOuthwaite |editor-firstWilliam |edition2nd |isbn978-0-6312-2164-7 |oclc49704935 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418004719/https://books.google.com/books?idJJmdpqJwkwwC&pgPA12 |archive-date18 April 2021 |url-statuslive}}
* {{Cite book |titleOxford English Dictionary |dateSeptember 2005 |publisherOxford University Press |edition3rd |chapterAnarchy |ref{{Harvid|Oxford English Dictionary|2005}}}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
* {{Cite book |lastAvrich |firstPaul |author-linkPaul Avrich |titleAnarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America |date1995 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-0-6910-3412-6 |locationPrinceton |language=English }}
* {{Cite book |lastBarclay |firstHarold B. |author-linkHarold Barclay |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMrFHQgAACAAJ |titlePeople Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy |publisherKahn & Averill |date1990 |isbn=978-0-9393-0609-1}}
* {{Cite book |lastBaker |firstZoe |author-linkZoe Baker |titleMeans and Ends: The Revolutionary Practice of Anarchism in Europe and the United States |publisherAK Press |year2023 |isbn978-1-8493-5498-1 |oclc1345217229 }}
* {{Cite book |lastChomsky |firstNoam |author-linkNoam Chomsky |titleChomsky on Anarchism |publisherAK Press |date2005 |isbn978-1-9048-5926-0 |editor-lastPateman |editor-firstBarry |locationOakland}}
* {{Cite book |lastEdmundson |firstWilliam A. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq_gClKUbJyYC |titleThree Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority |date2007 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-5210-3751-8}} Criticism of philosophical anarchism.
* {{Cite book |lastEsenwein |firstGeorge |titleAnarchist Ideology and the Working-Class Movement in Spain, 1868β1898 |publisherUniversity of California Press |date1989 |isbn978-0-5200-6398-3 |location=Berkeley}}
* {{Cite book |lastHarper |firstClifford |author-linkClifford Harper |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW63aAAAAMAAJ |titleAnarchy: A Graphic Guide |publisherCamden Press |date1987 |isbn=978-0-9484-9122-1}}
* {{Cite book |lastHuemer |firstMichael |titleThe Problem of Political Authority: An Examination of the Right to Coerce and the Duty to Obey |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |date2012 |isbn978-1-1372-8164-7 |locationLondon |page137}} A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims."
* {{Cite news |lastKahn |firstJoseph |date2000-08-05 |titleAnarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/05/arts/anarchism-creed-that-won-t-stay-dead-spread-world-capitalism-resurrects-long.html |url-accesssubscription |pageB9 |issn=0362-4331}}
* {{Cite book |lastKinna |firstRuth |author-linkRuth Kinna |titleAnarchism: A Beginners Guide |publisherOneworld |date2005 |isbn=978-1-8516-8370-3}}
* {{Cite book |lastLe Guin |firstUrsula K. |author-linkUrsula K. Le Guin |titleThe Dispossessed |title-linkThe Dispossessed |publisherHarperCollins |date=2009}} Anarchistic popular fiction novel.<!-- Gifford 2019, p 580. -->
* {{Cite book |lastSartwell |firstCrispin |author-linkCrispin Sartwell |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbk-aaMVGKO0C |titleAgainst the State: An Introduction to Anarchist Political Theory |publisherSUNY Press |date2008 |isbn=978-0-7914-7447-1}}
* {{Cite book |lastScott |firstJames C. |author-linkJames C. Scott |titleTwo Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play |title-linkTwo Cheers for Anarchism |publisherPrinceton University Press |date2012 |isbn978-0-6911-5529-6 |location=Princeton, New Jersey}}
* {{Cite journal |lastSuissa |firstJudith |date1 July 2019b |titleEducation and Non-domination: Reflections from the Radical Tradition |journalStudies in Philosophy and Education |volume38 |issue4 |pages359β375 |doi10.1007/s11217-019-09662-3 |s2cid151210357 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |lastWolff |firstRobert Paul |author-linkRobert Paul Wolff |titleIn Defense of Anarchism |title-linkIn Defense of Anarchism |publisherUniversity of California Press |date1998 |isbn978-0-5202-1573-3}} An argument for philosophical anarchism.
* {{Cite journal |lastWoodcock |firstGeorge |author-linkGeorge Woodcock |dateJanuary 1962 |titleAnarchism in Spain |urlhttps://www.historytoday.com/archive/anarchism-spain |journalHistory Today |volume12 |issue1 |pages22β32 |access-date=14 October 2020}}
* {{Cite book |last1Levy |first1Carl |urlhttps://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2 |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |last2Adams |first2Matthew S. |date2019 |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |isbn978-3-3197-5620-2 |languageen |doi10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2 |s2cid149333615}}
External links
<!-- Attention! The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size. PLEASE only list an outside link if it applies to anarchism in general, is somewhat noteworthy, and has consensus on the talkpage. Links to sites which cover anarchist submovements will be routinely moved to subarticles to keep this article free of clutter. -->
{{Prone to spam|date=November 2014}}
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu Anarchy Archives] β an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.
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39 | Albedo | {{Short description|Ratio of how much light is reflected back from a body}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
: the map shows the difference between the amount of sunlight Greenland reflected in the summer of 2011 versus the average percent it reflected between 2000 and 2006. Some areas reflect close to 20 percent less light than a decade ago.<ref name":2">{{Cite web |date2011 |titleGreenland's Ice Is Growing Darker |urlhttps://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/76916/greenlands-ice-is-growing-darker |access-date6 July 2023 |websiteNASA}}</ref>]]
Albedo ({{IPAc-en|Γ¦|l|Λ|b|iΛ|d|oΚ}} {{respell|al|BEE|doh}}; {{etymology|la|albedo|whiteness}}) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity J<sub>e</sub> to the irradiance E<sub>e</sub> (flux per unit area) received by a surface.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://web.cse.ohio-state.edu/~parent.1/classes/782/Lectures/03_Radiometry.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://web.cse.ohio-state.edu/~parent.1/classes/782/Lectures/03_Radiometry.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleFundamentals of Rendering - Radiometry / Photometry|author1Pharr|author2Humphreys|websiteWeb.cse.ohio-state.edu|access-date2 March 2022}}</ref> The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://curry.eas.gatech.edu/Courses/6140/ency/Chapter9/Ency_Atmos/Reflectance_Albedo_Surface.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://curry.eas.gatech.edu/Courses/6140/ency/Chapter9/Ency_Atmos/Reflectance_Albedo_Surface.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleReflectance and albedo, surface |encyclopediaEncyclopedia of the Atmosphere |editorJ. R. Holton |editor2J. A. Curry |lastCoakley |firstJ. A. |publisherAcademic Press |year2003|pages1914β1923}}</ref> These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun).
While directional-hemispherical reflectance factor is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages.
Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Henderson-Sellers |first1A. |last2Wilson |first2M. F.|year1983 |quoteAlbedo observations of the Earth's surface for climate research |jstor37357 |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A |volume309 |issue1508 |titleThe Study of the Ocean and the Land Surface from Satellites |pages285β294 |bibcode1983RSPTA.309..285H |doi10.1098/rsta.1983.0042|s2cid=122094064 }}</ref> Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 ΞΌm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4β0.7 ΞΌm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation).
Iceβalbedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Iceβalbedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastBudyko |firstM. I. |date1969-01-01 |titleThe effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth |journalTellus |volume21 |issue5 |pages611β619 |bibcode1969Tell...21..611B |doi10.3402/tellusa.v21i5.10109 |issn0040-2826|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Albedo is an important concept in climate science.
Terrestrial albedo
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Sample albedos
|-
! Surface
! Typical <br />albedo
|-
| Fresh asphalt || 0.04<ref name="heat island">{{cite web
| lastPon | firstBrian
| date=30 June 1999
| url=http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/
| titlePavement Albedo | publisherHeat Island Group
| access-date=27 August 2007
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070829153207/http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/Pavements/Albedo/
| archive-date= 29 August 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->
}}</ref>
|-
|Open ocean
|0.06<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/processes/albedo.html|titleThermodynamics {{!}} Thermodynamics: Albedo {{!}} National Snow and Ice Data Center|websitensidc.org|access-date14 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
| Worn asphalt || 0.12<ref name="heat island" />
|-
| Conifer forest, <br />summer || 0.08,<ref name="Betts 1">{{Cite journal
| author=Alan K. Betts
| author2=John H. Ball
| title=Albedo over the boreal forest
| journal=Journal of Geophysical Research
| date=1997
| volume102 | issueD24 | pages=28,901β28,910
| url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml
| access-date=27 August 2007
| doi=10.1029/96JD03876
| bibcode=1997JGR...10228901B
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184719/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1997/96JD03876.shtml
| archive-date=30 September 2007<!--Added by DASHBot-->
| doi-access=free
}}</ref> 0.09 to 0.15<ref name="mmutrees" />
|-
| Deciduous forest || 0.15 to 0.18<ref name="mmutrees" />
|-
| Bare soil || 0.17<ref name="markvart">{{Cite book
| author=Tom Markvart
| author2=Luis CastaΕΕΌer
| date=2003
| title=Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications
| publisherElsevier | isbn978-1-85617-390-2
}}</ref>
|-
| Green grass || 0.25<ref name="markvart" />
|-
| Desert sand || 0.40<ref name="Tetzlaff">{{Cite book
| firstG. | lastTetzlaff | date=1983
| title=Albedo of the Sahara
|publisher=Cologne University Satellite Measurement of Radiation Budget Parameters
| pages=60β63
}}</ref>
|-
| New concrete || 0.55<ref name="markvart" />
|-
| Ocean ice|| 0.50 to 0.70<ref name="markvart" />
|-
| Fresh snow || 0.80<ref name="markvart" />
|-
| Aluminium || 0.85<ref>{{cite journal | pmid31822767 | pmc6904492 | doi10.1038/s41598-019-55272-x | titleThe effects of surface albedo and initial lignin concentration on photodegradation of two varieties of Sorghum bicolor litter | journalScientific Reports | date10 December 2019 | volume9 | page18748 | last1Ruhland | first1Christopher T. | last2Niere | first2Joshua A. | issue1 | bibcode2019NatSR...918748R }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.pvsyst.com/help/albedo.htm | titlePhysical models used > Irradiation models > Albedo usual coefficients }}</ref>
|}
Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4.<ref name"PhysicsWorld">{{cite web|urlhttp://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Albedo.html |titleAlbedo β from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics |publisherScienceworld.wolfram.com |access-date19 August 2011}}</ref> The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3.<ref name"Goode" /> This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.
Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,<ref name"NASA" />). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2023}}
Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about {{convert|15|C|F}}. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below {{convert|β40|C|F}}.<ref name"washington" /> If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about {{convert|0|C|F}}.<ref name"clim-past" /> In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water β a so-called ocean planet β the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost {{convert|27|C|F}}.<ref name="Smith Robin" />
<!--Variability and recent/spatiotemporal changes-->
In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998β2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by climate change as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.<ref>{{cite news |last1Gray |first1Jennifer |titleThe Earth isn't as bright as it once was |urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2021/10/04/weather/earth-dimming-climate/index.html |access-date19 October 2021 |workCNN}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Goode |first1P. R. |last2PallΓ© |first2E. |last3Shoumko |first3A. |last4Shoumko |first4S. |last5MontaΓ±es-Rodriguez |first5P. |last6Koonin |first6S. E. |titleEarth's Albedo 1998β2017 as Measured From Earthshine |journalGeophysical Research Letters |date2021 |volume48 |issue17 |pagese2021GL094888 |doi10.1029/2021GL094888 |bibcode2021GeoRL..4894888G |s2cid239667126 |languageen |issn1944-8007|doi-accessfree }}</ref>
White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo
For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle ΞΈ<sub>i</sub> can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms:
* the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, <math>{\bar \alpha(\theta_i)}</math>, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and
* the bi-hemispherical reflectance, <math>\bar{ \bar \alpha}</math>, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo.
with <math>{1-D}</math> being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and <math>{D}</math> being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo <math>{\alpha}</math> (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as:
:<math>\alpha = (1 - D) \bar\alpha(\theta_i) + D \bar{\bar\alpha}.</math>
This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.<ref name"BlueskyAlbedo" />Changes to albedo due to human activitiessatellite system shows a darkening of Earth that has caused 1.7{{nbsp}}W/m<sup>2</sup> warming since 2010.<ref nameHansen_20250203/> That amount, only some of which is climate forcing, is equivalent to a 138βppm increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide.<ref nameHansen_20250203>{{cite journal |last1Hansen |first1James E. |last2Kharecha |first2Pushker |last3Sato |first3Makiko |last4Tselioudis |first4George |last5Kelly |first5Joseph |last6Bauer |first6Susanne E. |last7Ruedy |first7Reto |last8Jeong |first8Eunbi |last9Jin |first9Quijian |last10Rignot |first10Eric |last11Velicogna |first11Isabella |last12Schoeberl |first12Mark R. |last13von Schuckmann |first13Karina |last14Amponsem |first14Joshua |last15Cao |first15Junji |last16Keskinen |first16Anton |last17Li |first17Jing |last18Pokela |first18Anni |titleGlobal Warming Has Accelerated: Are the United Nations and the Public Well-Informed? |journalEnvironment |date3 February 2025 |volume67 |issue1 |pages6β44 |doi10.1080/00139157.2025.2434494|doi-accessfree |bibcode2025ESPSD..67....6H }} Figure 6.</ref>]]
Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Sagan |first1Carl |last2Toon |first2Owen B. |last3Pollack |first3James B. |date1979 |titleAnthropogenic Albedo Changes and the Earth's Climate |journalScience |volume206 |issue4425 |pages1363β1368 |bibcode1979Sci...206.1363S |doi10.1126/science.206.4425.1363 |issn0036-8075 |jstor1748990 |pmid17739279 |s2cid33810539}}</ref> Human impacts to "the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earthβs radiative energy balance" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal |last1Campra |first1Pablo |last2Garcia |first2Monica |last3Canton |first3Yolanda |last4Palacios-Orueta |first4Alicia |date2008 |titleSurface temperature cooling trends and negative radiative forcing due to land use change toward greenhouse farming in southeastern Spain |journalJournal of Geophysical Research |volume113 |issueD18 |bibcode2008JGRD..11318109C |doi10.1029/2008JD009912 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Urbanization generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01β0.02 lower than adjacent croplands), which contributes to global warming. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate the urban heat island effect. An estimate in 2022 found that on a global scale, "an albedo increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 Gt of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Ouyang |first1Zutao |last2Sciusco |first2Pietro |last3Jiao |first3Tong |last4Feron |first4Sarah |last5Li |first5Cheyenne |last6Li |first6Fei |last7John |first7Ranjeet |last8Peilei |first8Fan |last9Li |first9Xia |last10Williams |first10Christopher A. |last11Chen |first11Guangzhao |last12Wang |first12Chenghao |last13Chen |first13Jiquan |dateJuly 2022 |titleAlbedo changes caused by future urbanization contribute to global warming |journalNature Communications |volume13 |issue1 |page3800 |bibcode2022NatCo..13.3800O |doi10.1038/s41467-022-31558-z |pmc9249918 |pmid35778380}}</ref>
Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime thermal emittance, has been proposed as a solar radiation management strategy to mitigate energy crises and global warming known as passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC).<ref name":1">{{Cite journal |last1Wang |first1Tong |last2Wu |first2Yi |last3Shi |first3Lan |last4Hu |first4Xinhua |last5Chen |first5Min |last6Wu |first6Limin |date2021 |titleA structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling |journalNature Communications |volume12 |issue365 |page365 |doi10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7 |pmc7809060 |pmid33446648 |quoteAccordingly, designing and fabricating efficient PDRC with sufficiently high solar reflectance (πΒ―solar) (Ξ»β~β0.3β2.5βΞΌm) to minimize solar heat gain and simultaneously strong LWIR thermal emittance (Ρ¯LWIR) to maximize radiative heat loss is highly desirable. When the incoming radiative heat from the Sun is balanced by the outgoing radiative heat emission, the temperature of the Earth can reach its steady state.}}</ref><ref name":5">{{Cite journal |last1Chen |first1Meijie |last2Pang |first2Dan |last3Chen |first3Xingyu |last4Yan |first4Hongjie |last5Yang |first5Yuan |dateOctober 2021 |titlePassive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications |journalEcoMat |volume4 |doi10.1002/eom2.12153 |s2cid240331557 |quotePassive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) dissipates terrestrial heat to the extremely cold outer space without using any energy input or producing pollution. It has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global warming. |doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref name":02">{{Cite journal |lastMunday |firstJeremy |date2019 |titleTackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling |journalJoule |volume3 |issue9 |pages2057β2060 |doi10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010 |s2cid201590290 |doi-accessfree|bibcode2019Joule...3.2057M }}</ref> Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing the albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved.<ref name":22">{{Cite journal |last1Anand |first1Jyothis |last2Sailor |first2David J. |last3Baniassadi |first3Amir |dateFebruary 2021 |titleThe relative role of solar reflectance and thermal emittance for passive daytime radiative cooling technologies applied to rooftops |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670720308295 |journalSustainable Cities and Society |volume65 |page102612 |doi10.1016/j.scs.2020.102612 |bibcode2021SusCS..6502612A |s2cid229476136 |quoteThus, as manufactures consider development of PDRC materials for building applications, their efforts should disproportionately focus on increasing surface solar reflectance (albedo) values, while retaining the conventional thermal emissivity. |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref>
The tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses in AlmerΓa, Spain form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized.<ref name":0" /> A follow-up study found that "CO2-eq. emissions associated to changes in surface albedo are a consequence of land transformation" and can reduce surface temperature increases associated with climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1MuΓ±oz |first1Ivan |last2Campra |first2Pablo |date2010 |titleIncluding CO2-emission equivalence of changes in land surface albedo in life cycle assessment. Methodology and case study on greenhouse agriculture |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/226490855 |journalInt J Life Cycle Assess |volume15 |issue7 |pages679β680 |bibcode2010IJLCA..15..672M |doi10.1007/s11367-010-0202-5 |s2cid110705003 |viaResearch Gate}}</ref>
Examples of terrestrial albedo effects
sunlight relative to various surface conditions]]
Illumination
Albedo is not directly dependent on the illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). However, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.<ref name"Winston">{{cite journal| firstJay |lastWinston |titleThe Annual Course of Zonal Mean Albedo as Derived From ESSA 3 and 5 Digitized Picture Data |journalMonthly Weather Review |volume99 |pages818β827| bibcode1971MWRv...99..818W| date1971| doi10.1175/1520-0493(1971)099<0818:TACOZM>2.3.CO;2| issue11|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Insolation effects
The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.<ref>{{cite web |titleAlbedo Effect |urlhttps://www.npolar.no/en/fact/albedo/ |websiteNorsk PolarInstitutt |publisherNorwegian Polar Institute |access-date=23 June 2023}}</ref>
Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21721364-commercial-opportunities-are-vastly-outweighed-damage-climate-thawing-arctic|titleThe thawing Arctic threatens an environmental catastrophe|newspaperThe Economist|access-date8 May 2017|date29 April 2017}}</ref>Climate and weather
{{See also|Climate change feedback}}
s such as the ice-albedo feedback) or inhibit (negative feedbacks) warming.<ref nameNASA_IntegratedSystem>{{cite web |titleThe Study of Earth as an Integrated System |urlhttps://climate.nasa.gov/nasa_science/science/ |websitenasa.gov |publisherNASA |date2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161102022200/https://climate.nasa.gov/nasa_science/science/ |archive-date2 November 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameIPCC_AR6_SGI_FigTS.17>Fig. TS.17, [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_TS.pdf Technical Summary], Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), Working Group I, IPCC, 2021, p. 96. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220721021347/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_TS.pdf Archived] from the original on 21 July 2022.</ref>]]
Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idav7q4N8Ib6sC&pgPA53|titleEncyclopedia of Climate and Weather: Abs-Ero|last1Schneider|first1Stephen Henry|last2Mastrandrea|first2Michael D.|last3Root|first3Terry L.|date2011|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-976532-4|page53}}</ref> The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAlbedo and Climate {{!}} Center for Science Education |urlhttps://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/how-climate-works/albedo-and-climate |access-date2025-02-06 |websitescied.ucar.edu}}</ref>
The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks.<ref>{{cite web |year2013 |titleThe study of Earth as an integrated system |urlhttps://climate.nasa.gov/nasa_science/science/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190226190002/https://climate.nasa.gov/nasa_science/science/ |archive-date26 February 2019 |seriesVitals Signs of the Planet |publisherEarth Science Communications Team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory / California Institute of Technology}}</ref> The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the iceβalbedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds.<ref>Arias, P.A., N. Bellouin, E. Coppola, R.G. Jones, G. Krinner, J. Marotzke, V. Naik, M.D. Palmer, G.-K. Plattner, J. Rogelj, M. Rojas, J. Sillmann, T. Storelvmo, P.W. Thorne, B. Trewin, K. Achuta Rao, B. Adhikary, R.P. Allan, K. Armour, G. Bala, R. Barimalala, S. Berger, J.G. Canadell, C. Cassou, A. Cherchi, W. Collins, W.D. Collins, S.L. Connors, S. Corti, F. Cruz, F.J. Dentener, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, A. Diongue Niang, F.J. Doblas-Reyes, A. Dosio, H. Douville, F. Engelbrecht, V. Eyring, E. Fischer, P. Forster, B. Fox-Kemper, J.S. Fuglestvedt, J.C. Fyfe, et al., 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/technical-summary/ Technical Summary]. In [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/ Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change] [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. PΓ©an, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. YelekΓ§i, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 33β144. doi: 10.1017/9781009157896.002.</ref>{{rp|58}}
Albedoβtemperature feedback
{{Further|Iceβalbedo feedback}}
When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snowβtemperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snowβtemperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.
Snow
Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow.<ref>{{cite book |last1Hall |first1Dorothy K. |author-linkDorothy Hall (scientist)|titleRemote Sensing of Ice and Snow |date1985 |publisherSpringer Netherlands |locationDordrecht |isbn978-94-009-4842-6}}</ref> Over Antarctica, snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (referred to as the iceβalbedo positive feedback).
In Switzerland, the citizens have been protecting their glaciers with large white tarpaulins to slow down the ice melt. These large white sheets are helping to reject the rays from the sun and defecting the heat. Although this method is very expensive, it has been shown to work, reducing snow and ice melt by 60%.<ref>{{Cite web |lastswissinfo.ch/gw |date2021-04-02 |titleGlacier tarpaulins an effective but expensive shield against heat |urlhttps://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/sci-&-tech/glacier-tarpaulins-an-effective-but-expensive-shield-against-heat/46501004 |access-date2024-02-20 |websiteSWI swissinfo.ch |language=en-GB}}</ref>
Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback.<ref>"All About Sea Ice." National Snow and Ice Data Center. Accessed 16 November 2017. /cryosphere/seaice/index.html.</ref> Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}
Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.<ref name"Nat. Geo">[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/06/melt-zone/jenkins-text/3 "Changing Greenland β Melt Zone"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303175416/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/06/melt-zone/jenkins-text/3 |url2https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110806084123/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/06/melt-zone/jenkins-text/3 |date3 March 2016 |date2= 6 August 2011}} page 3, of 4, article by Mark Jenkins in National Geographic June 2010, accessed 8 July 2010</ref>
The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.{{citation needed|dateJanuary 2018}}Small-scale effectsAlbedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.<ref name"ranknfile-ue">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ranknfile-ue.org/h&s0897.html |titleHealth and Safety: Be Cool! (August 1997) |publisherRanknfile-ue.org |access-date19 August 2011}}</ref>
Solar photovoltaic effects
Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90Β°) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 Andrews | first1 Rob W. | last2 Pearce | first2 Joshua M. | date 2013 | title The effect of spectral albedo on amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic device performance | journal Solar Energy | volume 91 | pages 233β241 | doi 10.1016/j.solener.2013.01.030 |bibcode 2013SoEn...91..233A | url https://www.academia.edu/3081684 }}</ref> Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of bifacial solar cells where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 Riedel-LyngskΓ¦r | first1 Nicholas| last2 Ribaconka | first2 Ribaconka | last3 Po | first3 Mario | last4 Thorseth | first4 Anders | last5 Thorsteinsson | first5 Sune | last6 Dam-Hansen | first6 Carsten | last7 Jakobsen | first7 Michael L. | date 2022| title The effect of spectral albedo in bifacial photovoltaic performance | journal Solar Energy | volume 231| pages 921β935 | doi 10.1016/j.solener.2021.12.023 | bibcode 2022SoEn..231..921R| s2cid 245488941| doi-access free }}</ref> An analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) provided effective albedo values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 Brennan | first1 M.P. | author-link4 J. M. Pearce | last2 Abramase | first2 A.L. | last3 Andrews | first3 R.W. | last4 Pearce | first4 J. M. | date 2014 | title Effects of spectral albedo on solar photovoltaic devices | journal Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells | volume 124 | pages 111β116 | doi 10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.046 | bibcode 2014SEMSC.124..111B | url https://www.academia.edu/6222506 }}</ref>
Trees
{{Update section|dateMarch 2023|reasonthe references used are quite old; there must be more updated information available in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report}}
{{See also|Climate change#Land surface changes}}
Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In other words: The climate change mitigation effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo).<ref>{{cite journal |last1Zhao |first1Kaiguang |last2Jackson |first2Robert B |titleBiophysical forcings of land-use changes from potential forestry activities in North America |journalEcological Monographs |date2014 |volume84 |issue2 |pages329β353 |doi10.1890/12-1705.1 |bibcode2014EcoM...84..329Z |s2cid56059160 |urlhttps://jacksonlab.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj20871/files/media/file/em2014.pdf}}</ref>
In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover, albedo reduction may be significant enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect.<ref name"Betts" /> Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts as strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 Boucher | date 2004 | title Direct human influence of irrigation on atmospheric water vapour and climate | journal Climate Dynamics | volume 22 | issue 6β7| pages 597β603 | doi10.1007/s00382-004-0402-4|display-authorsetal|bibcode 2004ClDy...22..597B | s2cid 129640195 | url https://www.academia.edu/25329256}}</ref> Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 Bonan | first1 GB | date 2008 | title Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests | journal Science | volume 320 | issue 5882| pages 1444β1449 | doi 10.1126/science.1155121 | pmid18556546|bibcode 2008Sci...320.1444B | s2cid 45466312 | url https://zenodo.org/record/1230896 }}</ref>
Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary mitigation benefit.<ref>{{cite web |authorJonathan Amos |date15 December 2006 |titleCare needed with carbon offsets |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6184577.stm |access-date8 July 2008 |publisherBBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date5 December 2005 |titleModels show growing more forests in temperate regions could contribute to global warming |urlhttps://publicaffairs.llnl.gov/news/news_releases/2005/NR-05-12-04.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100527212654/https://publicaffairs.llnl.gov/news/news_releases/2005/NR-05-12-04.html |archive-date27 May 2010 |access-date8 July 2008 |publisherLawrence Livermore National Laboratory}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1S. Gibbard |author2K. Caldeira |author3G. Bala |author4T. J. Phillips |author5M. Wickett |dateDecember 2005 |titleClimate effects of global land cover change |urlhttps://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc874513/ |journalGeophysical Research Letters |volume32 |issue23 |pagesL23705 |bibcode2005GeoRL..3223705G |doi10.1029/2005GL024550 |doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Malhi |first1Yadvinder |last2Meir |first2Patrick |last3Brown |first3Sandra |year2002 |titleForests, carbon and global climate |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume360 |issue1797 |pages1567β91 |bibcode2002RSPTA.360.1567M |doi10.1098/rsta.2002.1020 |pmid12460485 |s2cid=1864078}}</ref>
In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15.<ref name"mmutrees" /> Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy.<ref name"Ollinger">{{cite journal
| title = Canopy nitrogen, carbon assimilation and albedo in temperate and boreal forests: Functional relations and potential climate feedbacks
| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
| volume = 105
| issue = 49
| date = 2008
| url| last1 Ollinger
| first1 = S. V.
| last2 = Richardson
| first2 = A. D.
| last3 = Martin
| first3 = M. E.
| last4 = Hollinger
| first4 = D. Y.
| last5 = Frolking
| first5 = S.
| last6 = Reich
| first6 = P.B.
| last7 = Plourde
| first7 = L.C.
| last8 = Katul
| first8 = G.G.
| last9 = Munger
| first9 = J.W.
| last10 = Oren
| first10 = R.
| last11 = Smith
| first11 = M-L.
| last12 = Paw U
| first12 = K. T.
| last13 = Bolstad
| first13 = P.V.
| last14 = Cook
| first14 = B.D.
| last15 = Day
| first15 = M.C.
| last16 = Martin
| first16 = T.A.
| last17 = Monson
| first17 = R.K.
| last18 = Schmid
| first18 = H.P.
| pages = 19336β41
| doi = 10.1073/pnas.0810021105
| pmid = 19052233
| pmc = 2593617
| bibcode = 2008PNAS..10519336O
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.
Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.<ref name="Betts" />
Research in 2023, drawing from 176 flux stations globally, revealed a climate trade-off: increased carbon uptake from afforestation results in reduced albedo. Initially, this reduction may lead to moderate global warming over a span of approximately 20 years, but it is expected to transition into significant cooling thereafter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Graf |first1Alexander |last2Wohlfahrt |first2Georg |last3Aranda-Barranco |first3Sergio |last4Arriga |first4Nicola |last5BrΓΌmmer |first5Christian |last6Ceschia |first6Eric |last7Ciais |first7Philippe |last8Desai |first8Ankur R. |last9Di Lonardo |first9Sara |last10Gharun |first10Mana |last11GrΓΌnwald |first11Thomas |last12HΓΆrtnagl |first12Lukas |last13Kasak |first13Kuno |last14Klosterhalfen |first14Anne |last15Knohl |first15Alexander |date2023-08-25 |titleJoint optimization of land carbon uptake and albedo can help achieve moderate instantaneous and long-term cooling effects |journalCommunications Earth & Environment |languageen |volume4 |issue1 |page298 |doi10.1038/s43247-023-00958-4 |pmid38665193 |pmc11041785 |bibcode2023ComEE...4..298G |issn2662-4435 |hdl-accessfree |hdl10481/85323}}</ref>
Water
Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations.
At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.<ref name="Fresnel" />
Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.
Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.
Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.<ref>{{Cite web |date2007-01-31 |titleArctic Reflection: Clouds Replace Snow and Ice as Solar Reflector |urlhttps://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/ArcticReflector/arctic_reflector4.php |access-date2022-04-28 |websiteearthobservatory.nasa.gov |languageen}}</ref>
Clouds
Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."<ref name"livescience">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.livescience.com/environment/060124_earth_albedo.html |titleBaffled Scientists Say Less Sunlight Reaching Earth |publisherLiveScience |date24 January 2006 |access-date19 August 2011}}</ref>
Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic.<ref>{{cite journal|titleContrails reduce daily temperature range|urlhttp://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf|journalNature |access-date7 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060503192714/http://facstaff.uww.edu/travisd/pdf/jetcontrailsrecentresearch.pdf|archive-date3 May 2006|page601|volume418|issue6898|date8 August 2002|url-statusdead|doi10.1038/418601a|bibcode 2002Natur.418..601T|pmid12167846|last1Travis|first1D. J.|last2Carleton|first2A. M.|last3Lauritsen|first3R. G.|s2cid4425866}}</ref> A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as {{convert|10|C-change|0}} colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.<ref name"harvard">{{cite journal |titleThe Kuwait oil fires as seen by Landsat |date30 May 1991|bibcode1992JGR....9714565C |last1Cahalan |first1Robert F. |volume97 |issueD13 |page14565 |journalJournal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |doi10.1029/92JD00799|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/23842551 }}</ref>Aerosol effectsAerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.<ref name"girda">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671 |titleClimate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisherGrida.no |access-date19 August 2011| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110629175429/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm| archive-date 29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref>
Black carbon
Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m<sup>β2</sup>, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m<sup>β2</sup>.<ref name"girda 1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm |titleClimate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis |publisherGrida.no |access-date19 August 2011| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110629180154/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm| archive-date29 June 2011<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.<ref>James Hansen & Larissa Nazarenko, Soot Climate Forcing Via Snow and Ice Albedos, 101 Proc. of the Nat'l. Acad. of Sci. 423 (13 January 2004) ("The efficacy of this forcing is Β»2 (i.e., for a given forcing it is twice as effective as CO<sub>2</sub> in altering global surface air temperature)"); compare Zender Testimony, supra note 7, at 4 (figure 3); See J. Hansen & L. Nazarenko, supra note 18, at 426. ("The efficacy for changes of Arctic sea ice albedo is >3. In additional runs not shown here, we found that the efficacy of albedo changes in Antarctica is also >3."); See also Flanner, M.G., C.S. Zender, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Rasch, Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow, 112 J. GEOPHYS. RES. D11202 (2007) ("The forcing is maximum coincidentally with snowmelt onset, triggering strong snow-albedo feedback in local springtime. Consequently, the "efficacy" of black carbon/snow forcing is more than three times greater than forcing by CO<sub>2</sub>.").</ref>{{Failed verification|dateJanuary 2020}}
Astronomical albedo
is darker than Saturn even though they receive the same amount of sunlight. This is due to a difference in albedo (0.22 versus 0.499 in geometric albedo).]]In astronomy, the term albedo can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved.
Optical or visual albedo
The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.
Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96.<ref name="sicardy">
{{cite journal
| title = Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation
| journal = European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts
| volume = 6
| date = 2011
| url = http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-137-8.pdf
| access-date = 14 September 2011
| bibcode = 2011epsc.conf..137S
| last1 = Sicardy
| first1 = B.
| last2 = Ortiz
| first2 = J. L.
| last3 = Assafin
| first3 = M.
| last4 = Jehin
| first4 = E.
| last5 = Maury
| first5 = A.
| last6 = Lellouch
| first6 = E.
| last7 = Gil-Hutton
| first7 = R.
| last8 = Braga-Ribas
| first8 = F.
| last9 = Colas
| first9 = F.
| page = 137
| display-authors=8
}}
</ref> Many small objects in the outer Solar System<ref name="tnoalbedo">{{cite web
|date=17 September 2008
|title=TNO/Centaur diameters and albedos
|publisher=Johnston's Archive
|author=Wm. Robert Johnston
|url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html
|access-date17 October 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081022223827/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnodiam.html| archive-date22 October 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05.<ref name"astalbedo">{{cite web
|date=28 June 2003
|title=Asteroid albedos: graphs of data
|publisher=Johnston's Archive
|author=Wm. Robert Johnston
|url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html
|access-date16 June 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080517100307/http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/astalbedo.html| archive-date17 May 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref> A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04.<ref name"dark">{{cite news
|date=29 November 2001
|title=Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System
|work=Space.com
|author=Robert Roy Britt
|url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html
|access-date1 September 2012| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090122074028/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html| archive-date= 22 January 2009}}</ref> Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.
The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14,<ref name="CERESmoon">
{{cite journal
| title = Celestial body irradiance determination from an underfilled satellite radiometer: application to albedo and thermal emission measurements of the Moon using CERES
| journal = Applied Optics
| volume 47 | issue 27
| date = 2008
| bibcode = 2008ApOpt..47.4981M
| last1 = Matthews
| first1 = G.
| pages = 4981β4993
|doi = 10.1364/AO.47.004981
| pmid=18806861}}
</ref> but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect.<ref name="medkeff" /> Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.
Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Planet
! Geometric
! Bond
|-
| Mercury
| 0.142 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.088 <ref name="Mallama"/> or 0.068
|-
| Venus
| 0.689 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.76 <ref name="Haus_et_al"/> or 0.77
|-
| Earth
| 0.434 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.294 <ref>{{cite web|url http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html |titleEarth Fact Sheet|website NASA|first David R.|last Williams |date 11 January 2024}}</ref>
|-
| Mars
| 0.170 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.250 <ref>{{cite web|url http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html |titleMars Fact Sheet|website NASA|first David R.|last Williams |date 25 November 2020}}</ref>
|-
| Jupiter
| 0.538 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.343Β±0.032 <ref>{{cite web|url http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/jupiterfact.html |titleJupiter Fact Sheet|website NASA|first David R.|last Williams |date 11 January 2024}}</ref> and also 0.503Β±0.012 <ref name="Li_et_al"/>
|-
| Saturn
| 0.499 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.342 <ref name="Hanel_et_al"/>
|-
| Uranus
| 0.488 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.300 <ref name="Pearl_et_al_Uranus"/>
|-
| Neptune
| 0.442 <ref name="Mallama_et_al"/>
| 0.290 <ref name="Pearl_et_al_Neptune"/>
|}
In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo. It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.
An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by:<ref name="bruton">{{cite web
|title=Conversion of Absolute Magnitude to Diameter for Minor Planets
|publisher=Department of Physics & Astronomy (Stephen F. Austin State University)
|author=Dan Bruton
|url=http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html
|access-date=7 October 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081210190134/http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/asteroids/sizemagnitude.html
|archive-date=10 December 2008
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
<math display"block">A\left ( \frac{1329\times10^{-H/5}}{D} \right ) ^2,</math>
where <math>A</math> is the astronomical albedo, <math>D</math> is the diameter in kilometers, and <math>H</math> is the absolute magnitude.
Radar albedo
In planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured. In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC).<ref name"Ostro_Planetary_Radar">{{cite book |last1Ostro |first1S. J. |editor1-lastMcFadden |editor1-firstL. |editor2-lastWeissman |editor2-firstP. R. |editor3-lastJohnson |editor3-firstT. V. |titlePlanetary Radar in Encyclopedia of the Solar System |date2007 |publisherAcademic Press |isbn978-0-12-088589-3 |pages735β764 |edition2nd}}</ref><ref name"Ostro_Asteroid_Radar">{{cite book |last1Ostro |first1S. J. |display-authorsetal |editor1-lastBottke |editor1-firstW. |editor2-lastCellino |editor2-firstA. |editor3-lastPaolicchi |editor3-firstP. |editor4-lastBinzel |editor4-firstR. P. |titleAsteroid Radar Astronomy in Asteroids III |date2002 |publisherUniversity of Arizona Press |isbn9780816522811 |pages151β168}}</ref> The echo power is measured in terms of radar cross-section, <math>{\sigma}_{OC}</math>, <math>{\sigma}_{SC}</math>, or <math>{\sigma}_{T}</math> (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power.<ref name="Ostro_Planetary_Radar" />
Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering.<ref name="Ostro_Asteroid_Radar" />
For most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo):<ref name="Ostro_Planetary_Radar" />
<math display"block"> \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} \frac{{\sigma}_\text{OC}}{\pi r^2} </math>
where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius, <math>r</math>. A smooth metallic sphere would have <math>\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} 1</math>.Radar albedos of Solar System objects{| class"wikitable"
|-
! Object
! <math>\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}</math>
|-
| Moon
| 0.06 <ref name="Ostro_Planetary_Radar" />
|-
| Mercury
| 0.05 <ref name="Ostro_Planetary_Radar" />
|-
| Venus
| 0.10 <ref name="Ostro_Planetary_Radar" />
|-
| Mars
| 0.06 <ref name="Ostro_Planetary_Radar" />
|-
| Avg. S-type asteroid
| 0.14 <ref name"Magri2007">{{cite journal |last1Magri |first1C | display-authorsetal |titleA radar survey of main-belt asteroids: Arecibo observations of 55 objects during 1999-2004 |journalIcarus |date2007 |volume186 |issue1 |pages126β151 |doi10.1016/j.icarus.2006.08.018|bibcode2007Icar..186..126M }}</ref>
|-
| Avg. C-type asteroid
| 0.13 <ref name="Magri2007"/>
|-
| Avg. M-type asteroid
| 0.26 <ref name"Shepard et al 2015">{{cite journal |last1Shepard |first1M. K. | display-authors etal |titleA radar survey of M- and X-class asteroids: III. Insights into their composition, hydration state, and structure. |journalIcarus |date2015 |volume245 |pages38β55 | doi10.1016/j.icarus.2014.09.016|bibcode=2015Icar..245...38S }}</ref>
|-
| Comet P/2005 JQ5
| 0.02 <ref>{{cite journal |last1Harmon |first1J. K. |display-authorsetal |titleRadar observations of Comet P/2005 JQ5 (Catalina) |journalIcarus |date2006 |volume184 |issue1 |pages285β288 |doi10.1016/j.icarus.2006.05.014|bibcode=2006Icar..184..285H }}</ref>
|}
The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references.
Relationship to surface bulk density
In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections (<math>\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} < 0.1</math> or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity)<ref name"Ostro_Asteroid_Radar" /> and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships:<ref name"Shepard_M2">{{cite journal |last1Shepard |first1M. K. |display-authorsetal |titleA radar survey of M- and X-class asteroids II. Summary and synthesis |journalIcarus |date2010 |volume208 |issue1 |pages221β237 |doi10.1016/j.icarus.2010.01.017|bibcode=2010Icar..208..221S }}</ref>
:<math>\rho = \begin{cases}
3.20 \text{ g cm}^{-3} \ln \left( \frac{1 + \sqrt{0.83 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}}}{1 - \sqrt{0.83 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}}} \right) & \text{for } \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} \le 0.07 \\
(6.944 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} + 1.083) \text{ g cm}^{-3} & \text{for } \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} > 0.07
\end{cases}</math>.
History
The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastPerkins |firstSid |date2019-12-17 |titleAlbedo is a simple concept that plays complicated roles in climate and astronomy |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume116 |issue51 |pages25369β25371 |doi10.1073/pnas.1918770116|doi-accessfree |pmid31848298 |pmc6926063 }}</ref>
See also
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO -->
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* Bio-geoengineering
* Cool roof
* Daisyworld
* Emissivity
* Exitance
* Global dimming
* Iceβalbedo feedback
* Irradiance
* Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
* Opposition surge
* Polar see-saw
* Radar astronomy
* Solar radiation management
{{div col end}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
References
{{Reflist|refs<ref name"Goode">{{Cite journal |lastGoode |firstP. R. |date2001 |titleEarthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance |journalGeophysical Research Letters |volume28 |issue9 |pages1671β1674 |urlhttp://www.agu.org/journals/ABS/2001/2000GL012580.shtml |doi10.1029/2000GL012580 |bibcode 2001GeoRL..28.1671G |s2cid34790317 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
<ref name"NASA">{{cite web|urlhttp://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf|titleMODIS BRDF/Albedo Product: Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document, Version 5.0|access-date2 June 2009| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090601063932/http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/atbd/atbd_mod09.pdf| archive-date 1 June 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref>
<ref name"washington">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.atmos.washington.edu/~sgw/PAPERS/2002_Snowball.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~sgw/PAPERS/2002_Snowball.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleSnowball Earth: Ice thickness on the tropical ocean|websiteatmos.washington.edu|access-date20 September 2009}}</ref>
<ref name"clim-past">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.clim-past.net/2/31/2006/cp-2-31-2006.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.clim-past.net/2/31/2006/cp-2-31-2006.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleEffect of land albedo, CO<sub>2</sub>, orography, and oceanic heat transport on extreme climates|websiteClim-past.net|access-date20 September 2009}}</ref>
<ref name"Smith Robin">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mpimet.mpg.de/fileadmin/staff/smithrobin/IC_JClim-final.pdf|titleGlobal climate and ocean circulation on an aquaplanet ocean-atmosphere general circulation model|access-date20 September 2009| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090920212836/http://www.mpimet.mpg.de/fileadmin/staff/smithrobin/IC_JClim-final.pdf| archive-date 20 September 2009<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref>
<ref name="medkeff">{{cite web
| url = http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm
| title = Lunar Albedo
| first = Jeff
| last = Medkeff
| author-link = Jeffrey S. Medkeff
| date = 2002
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm
| archive-date = 23 May 2008
| access-date = 5 July 2010
}}
</ref>
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<ref name"mmutrees">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/gcc/1-3-3.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030301133707/http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/gcc/1-3-3.html |url-statusdead |archive-date1 March 2003 |titleThe Climate System |publisherManchester Metropolitan University |access-date11 November 2007 }}</ref>
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<ref name"Mallama_et_al">{{cite journal |titleComprehensive wide-band magnitudes and albedos for the planets, with applications to exo-planets and Planet Nine |journalIcarus |first1Anthony |last1Mallama |first2Bruce |last2Krobusek |first3Hristo |last3Pavlov |volume282 |pages19β33 |date2017 |doi10.1016/j.icarus.2016.09.023 |bibcode2017Icar..282...19M |arxiv1609.05048 |s2cid119307693 }}</ref>
<ref name"Mallama">{{cite arXiv |titleThe spherical bolometric albedo for planet Mercury |firstAnthony |lastMallama |date2017 |classastro-ph.EP |eprint=1703.02670}}</ref>
<ref name"Haus_et_al">{{cite journal |titleRadiative energy balance of Venus based on improved models of the middle and lower atmosphere |journalIcarus |first1R. |last1Haus|display-authorset al |volume272 |pages178β205 |dateJuly 2016 |doi10.1016/j.icarus.2016.02.048 |bibcode2016Icar..272..178H |urlhttps://elib.dlr.de/109285/1/Haus%20et%20al%202017_ICARUS.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://elib.dlr.de/109285/1/Haus%20et%20al%202017_ICARUS.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name"Li_et_al">{{cite journal |titleLess absorbed solar energy and more internal heat for Jupiter |first1Liming |last1Li|display-authorset al |journalNature Communications |volume9 |issue1 |page3709 |date2018 |doi10.1038/s41467-018-06107-2 |pmid30213944 |pmc6137063 |bibcode2018NatCo...9.3709L }}</ref>
<ref name"Hanel_et_al">{{cite journal |titleAlbedo, internal heat flux, and energy balance of Saturn |first1R.A. |last1Hanel|display-authorset al |journalIcarus |volume53 |issue2 |pages262β285 |date1983 |doi10.1016/0019-1035(83)90147-1 |bibcode1983Icar...53..262H }}</ref>
<ref name"Pearl_et_al_Uranus">{{cite journal |titleThe albedo, effective temperature, and energy balance of Uranus, as determined from Voyager IRIS data |first1J.C. |last1Pearl|display-authorset al |journalIcarus |volume84 |issue1 |pages12β28 |date1990 |doi10.1016/0019-1035(90)90155-3 |bibcode1990Icar...84...12P }}</ref>
<ref name"Pearl_et_al_Neptune">{{cite journal |titleThe albedo, effective temperature, and energy balance of Neptune, as determined from Voyager data |first1J.C. |last1Pearl|display-authorset al |journalJ. Geophys. Res. |volume96 |pages18,921β18,930 |date1991 |doi10.1029/91JA01087 |bibcode=1991JGR....9618921P }}</ref>
}}
External links
{{wiktionary}}
* [https://sites.google.com/site/albedoproject/home Albedo Project] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190403112715/https://sites.google.com/site/albedoproject/home |url2https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20240303205102/https://sites.google.com/site/albedoproject/home |date3 April 2019 |date23 March 2024 }}
* [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Albedo Albedo β Encyclopedia of Earth]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060505132944/http://www-modis.bu.edu/brdf/product.html NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site]
* [https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1bVUcTBiZ1B7KhcnYeJiz-zFmpzGtrele?usp=sharing Ocean surface albedo look-up-table]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081125082044/http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/Access_to_Data/Meteosat_Meteorological_Products/Product_List/SP_1125489019643?l=en Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm A discussion of Lunar albedos]
* [http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg reflectivity of metals (chart)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304024228/http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg |date4 March 2016 }}
{{Global warming}}
{{Portal bar|Earth science|Weather|Astronomy|Stars|Science}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Land surface effects on climate
Category:Climate change feedbacks
Category:Climate forcing
Category:Climatology
Category:Electromagnetic radiation
Category:Meteorological quantities
Category:Radiometry
Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)
Category:Radiation
Category:1760s neologisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo | 2025-04-05T18:25:14.057726 |
290 | A | "{{Short description|First letter of the Latin alphabet}}\n{{About|the Latin letter|the similar Gree(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A | 2025-04-05T18:25:15.113626 |
303 | Alabama | "{{Short description|U.S. state}}\n{{hatnote group|{{for|the river of the same name|Alabama River}}{(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama | 2025-04-05T18:25:15.429504 |
305 | Achilles | "{{Short description|Greek mythological hero}}\n{{Redirect|Achilleus|the Roman usurper with this nam(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achilles | 2025-04-05T18:25:15.526526 |
307 | Abraham Lincoln | "{{Short description|President of the United States from 1861 to 1865}}\n{{Other uses}}\n{{redirect|(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln | 2025-04-05T18:25:15.694491 |
308 | Aristotle | "{{Short description|Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath (384β322 BC)}}\n{{Other uses}}\n{{Good(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle | 2025-04-05T18:25:15.848419 |
309 | An American in Paris | "{{short description|1928 composition by George Gershwin}}\n{{About|the 1928 George Gershwin composi(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_American_in_Paris | 2025-04-05T18:25:15.896555 |
316 | Academy Award for Best Production Design | "{{Short description|Academy Award which recognizes achievement for art direction in film}}\n{{Use m(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Production_Design | 2025-04-05T18:25:16.124888 |
324 | Academy Awards | "{{Short description|Annual awards for cinematic achievements}}\n{{pp-move}}\n{{Redirect-multi|2|Osc(...TRUNCATED) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Awards | 2025-04-05T18:25:16.342862 |
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in Data Studio
TreeCorpus
TreeCorpus is a comprehensive, structured dataset derived from the latest Wikipedia dumps, specially processed to serve as high-quality training data for conversational AI models. This dataset transforms Wikipedia's encyclopedic knowledge into a format optimized for natural language understanding and generation tasks.
Dataset Statistics
- Size: 26.27 GB (26,272,580,250 bytes)
- Examples: 2,882,766 articles
- Download Size: 13.33 GB (13,326,529,312 bytes)
- Language: English
Data Structure
Each entry in the dataset contains:
id(string): Unique Wikipedia article identifiertitle(string): Article titletext(string): Clean, processed text contenturl(string): Source Wikipedia URLtimestamp(string): Processing timestamp
Key Features
- Clean, Structured Content: Meticulously processed to remove markup, templates, references, and other non-content elements while preserving the informational value of Wikipedia articles.
- Rich Metadata: Each entry includes article ID, title, clean text content, source URL, and timestamp.
- Comprehensive Coverage: Incorporates the full spectrum of Wikipedia's knowledge base, spanning nearly 3 million articles across countless topics.
- Conversational Optimization: Content is processed specifically to support training of dialogue systems, conversational agents, and knowledge-grounded language models.
- Regular Updates: Built from the latest Wikipedia dumps to ensure current information.
Usage
This dataset is ideal for:
- Training large language models requiring broad knowledge bases
- Fine-tuning conversational agents for knowledge-intensive tasks
- Question-answering systems that need factual grounding
- Research in knowledge representation and retrieval in natural language
License and Citation
TreeCorpus is derived from Wikipedia content available under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license. When using this dataset, please provide appropriate attribution to both this dataset and Wikipedia.
Dataset Configuration
The dataset is configured with a default split:
- Split name: train
- Data files pattern: data/train-*
Creation Process
TreeCorpus was created using a specialized pipeline that:
- Downloads the latest Wikipedia dumps
- Processes XML content to extract articles
- Cleans and standardizes text by removing markup, templates, and non-content elements
- Structures data in a consistent, machine-readable format
- Filters out redirects, stubs, and non-article content
For more details on the methodology and processing pipeline, please see the accompanying code documentation.
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